Background
- When Dwight D. Eisenhower became U.S. president in 1953, he and his Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, introduced a new Cold War strategy called the “New Look.”
- The policy aimed to contain communism while reducing military spending after the Korean War’s high costs.
- It relied heavily on nuclear deterrence instead of large conventional armies, making the threat of massive retaliation the centerpiece of U.S. defense.
- The National Security Council Report 162/2 (1953) formalized this plan, emphasizing reliance on nuclear weapons and alliances to maintain global security.
Definition
Massive Retaliation
- The promise to respond to any act of aggression with overwhelming nuclear force.
Case study
President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961)
Background
- Former World War II general Dwight D. Eisenhower became president in 1953, promising to protect U.S. security while reducing military costs.
- He viewed communism as a global threat, but believed total war with the Soviet Union must be avoided.
- His main foreign policy aim was containment through strength and deterrence, balancing defense and diplomacy.
- Eisenhower and his Secretary of State John Foster Dulles introduced the “New Look” policy, emphasizing nuclear power and alliances rather than large ground forces.
Key Policies and Actions
- Promoted “massive retaliation” (the idea that the U.S. would respond to any aggression with overwhelming nuclear force.)
- Encouraged alliances such as SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955) to encircle the Soviet Union and limit communist expansion.
- Used covert operations led by the CIA to overthrow governments seen as communist threats, such as Iran (1953)and Guatemala (1954).
- Managed key Cold War crises, including the Taiwan Strait Crises (1954–1955) and the U-2 Spy Plane Incident (1960), which damaged U.S.–Soviet relations.
Impact and Legacy
- Eisenhower maintained peace between superpowers while expanding U.S. global influence through diplomacy and covert power.
- His policies intensified the arms race and deepened Cold War tensions, especially after the U-2 incident.
- In the Americas, his administration increased U.S. intervention in Latin America, reinforcing anti-communist regimes and long-term distrust of U.S. policy.
- At home, Eisenhower’s balance between security and prosperity left the U.S. stable and economically strong, though critics argued he relied too heavily on nuclear deterrence.
Reasons for the Policy and Regional Application
Reasons for the New Look
- Eisenhower wanted to balance national defense with a stable economy, believing that unchecked military spending could weaken the U.S. financially.
- Dulles saw the Cold War as a moral struggle between freedom and communism, advocating a more aggressive, faith-driven diplomacy.
- The U.S. sought to show strength while avoiding another Korea-like ground war.
Application in the Americas
- The policy shaped U.S. actions across Latin America, where leaders feared communist influence through social unrest or nationalist movements.
- The CIA used covert operations to remove governments viewed as communist threats, such as in Guatemala (1954) with the overthrow of Jacobo Árbenz.
- The U.S. strengthened its control through alliances and aid, including the Organization of American States (OAS), which reinforced hemispheric anti-communism.
Definition
Brinkmanship
- A foreign policy strategy in which the United States and the Soviet Union would escalate dangerous disputes to the edge of all-out war in order to force the other side to back down
Short-Term and Long-Term Impacts
Short-Term Impacts
- The New Look gave the U.S. global confidence, projecting military superiority through nuclear deterrence.
- Latin American governments received U.S. support as long as they stayed anti-communist, regardless of human rights issues.
- Fear of nuclear war increased globally, especially during crises such as Taiwan (1954–1955) and the U-2 Spy Plane Incident (1960).
Long-Term Impacts
- Heavy reliance on nuclear weapons encouraged an arms race with the Soviet Union, worsening global tensions.
- The U.S. use of covert intervention in Latin America set a pattern of interventionist policy, seen later in Cuba (1961) and Chile (1973).
- Many Latin American nations grew resentful of U.S. dominance, fueling anti-American sentiment and nationalist movements.
Definition
Deterrence
- Using the threat of strong retaliation to discourage an enemy from taking aggressive actions.
Common Mistake
- Describing the New Look only as a nuclear policy, without explaining its economic goals or Latin American applications.
- Ignoring Dulles’s moral and religious influence on U.S. foreign policy.
- Forgetting that the policy increased tensions instead of reducing them in the long term.
Exam technique
- Structure essays by policy aim → application → consequence for clarity and analysis.
- Use specific examples (e.g., Guatemala 1954, Taiwan 1955, U-2 Crisis 1960) to show depth.
- In evaluation questions, balance Eisenhower’s economic success with his foreign policy risks.
Theory of Knowledge
- Ethics and Power: Can moral convictions justify covert operations or nuclear threats?
- Knowledge and Fear: How did propaganda and public fear shape perceptions of security during the Cold War?
- Perspective: How might Latin American nations have viewed the “New Look” differently from the U.S.?
Self review
- To what extent did Eisenhower’s “New Look” policy successfully contain communism while maintaining U.S. security?
- Assess the impact of the New Look policy on the political and diplomatic relations of the Americas.
- Examine how far economic concerns shaped Eisenhower’s Cold War strategy between 1953 and 1961.
