Consolidation and maintenance: Hitler's use of force Notes

Paramilitary Control and Political Violence

1. The SA (Sturmabteilung), with over 2 million members by early 1934, intimidated political opponents, disrupted rival meetings, and helped enforce Nazi dominance in public life.
2. Violence against communists and socialists was systematic, with opponents beaten, arrested, or driven underground.
3. Street clashes and intimidation ensured opposition parties could not campaign freely, especially in early 1933 elections.
4. The SA’s radical demands and independence threatened Hitler’s alliance with the army and industrialists.
5. The Night of the Long Knives (30 June - 2 July 1934) purged SA leaders like Ernst Röhm and eliminated other political rivals, consolidating Hitler’s control of the Nazi Party and reassuring the army.
6. The purge was retroactively legalised, showing the fusion of force and law in Nazi consolidation.

SS Expansion and Centralisation of Repression

1. The SS (Schutzstaffel), originally Hitler’s bodyguard, grew under Heinrich Himmler into the elite enforcer of Nazi ideology, distinct from and superior to the SA.
2. By 1936, Himmler controlled all German police forces, including the Gestapo and Kripo, creating a centralised security apparatus.
3. The SD (Sicherheitsdienst), led by Reinhard Heydrich, acted as the intelligence service, monitoring loyalty and detecting dissent within and beyond the party.
4. The SS became directly responsible for managing the growing concentration camp system, making it a core instrument of terror.
5. Uniformed SS presence in public reinforced the image of a disciplined, omnipresent force.

Gestapo and the Police State

1. The Gestapo, established by Göring in 1933 and placed under Himmler in 1934, became notorious for arbitrary arrest and indefinite detention without trial.
2. With only around 30,000 officers at its peak, the Gestapo relied heavily on public denunciations, fostering a culture of fear and mutual suspicion.
3. The Gestapo targeted political opponents, Jews, clergy, and anyone deemed a threat to the regime’s security.
4. High-profile arrests and publicised trials served as warnings to deter potential dissent.
5. By 1939, the Gestapo, SS, SD, and Kripo were merged into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), tightening totalitarian control.

Concentration Camps and Terror as Deterrent

1. Dachau, established in March 1933, became the model for a network of camps used to detain political prisoners and “undesirable” groups.
2. Camps were presented as “re-education” centres but in practice were sites of brutal forced labour, starvation, and execution.
3. By the late 1930s, camp populations expanded to include Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, Roma, and Jews.
4. The camp system normalised the use of extrajudicial punishment, bypassing the legal system entirely.
5. The threat of being sent to a camp silenced dissent among the broader population.