- Alexander III’s rule: He came to power after his father was assassinated in 1881. He believed reforms were dangerous and ruled harshly, focusing on keeping absolute power.
- Repression under Alexander III: He increased censorship, used the secret police (Okhrana) to crush radicals, and restricted freedom of speech and universities.
- Russification: Non-Russian groups (Poles, Finns, Jews) were forced to adopt Russian language and culture. Jews faced pogroms (violent attacks) and discrimination.
- Economic modernization under Alexander III: Finance minister Sergei Witte encouraged railway building, foreign loans, and industry, laying foundations for growth.
- Nicholas II becomes tsar (1894): He was weak and indecisive, but continued Witte’s policies to modernize Russia’s economy and industry.
- Industrial growth: By 1914, Russia had major factories, railways like the Trans-Siberian Railway, and rising coal and steel production. But cities were overcrowded and working conditions were poor.
- Repression under Nicholas II: Like his father, he used censorship, the Okhrana, and the army to crush strikes and demonstrations. He saw opposition as a threat to the monarchy.
- 1905 Revolution: Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday sparked mass protests. Nicholas created the Duma (parliament), but he limited its power and dissolved it when it opposed him.
- Growth of opposition: Workers supported socialist groups (Marxists, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks), while peasants wanted land reform. Liberals in the middle class pushed for a constitutional monarchy.
- By 1917: Economic modernization had made Russia stronger, but repression and poor living conditions created anger. World War I turned discontent into revolution, leading to the fall of Nicholas II.
Common Mistake
- Students sometimes forget that both tsars also oversaw economic modernization, which was significant even if it did not solve social problems.
- Industry grew quickly, but most Russians were still peasants living in poverty.
Exam technique
- Show how modernization (factories, railways) created new urban workers, which then increased opposition movements.
- Highlight that both used repression, but Nicholas II faced greater opposition because of industrial unrest and war.
Self review
- Compare and contrast the policies of Alexander III and Nicholas II in dealing with opposition.
- To what extent did economic modernization strengthen or weaken tsarist rule between 1881 and 1917?
- Assess the reasons for the growth of opposition to tsarist rule under Alexander III and Nicholas II.
