6.3B Stakeholder responses (HL) Notes

Responses to Climate Change

1. Climate change responses involve mitigation, which reduces the causes of climate change, and adaptation, which reduces its impacts.
2. Responses operate at different scales, including individual, community, national, and global levels.
3. Effective climate action requires cooperation between governments, industries, NGOs, communities, and individual consumers.
4. Different responses vary in cost, speed, effectiveness, and political acceptance, so climate strategies must be compared across multiple factors.

Economic Measures

1. Carbon Pricing and Market-Based Approaches

1. Carbon pricing assigns a financial cost to emitting greenhouse gases, encouraging industries to switch to low-emission alternatives.
2. Carbon taxes increase the price of fossil fuels based on their carbon content, which discourages carbon-intensive activities.
3. Cap-and-trade systems set a maximum emissions limit and allow companies to buy or sell allowances within that limit.
4. Market-based approaches stimulate innovation by rewarding companies that reduce emissions more efficiently than competitors.

2. Subsidies and Incentives for Renewable Energy

1. Governments provide financial incentives for solar, wind, geothermal, and bioenergy technologies.
2. Subsidies reduce upfront costs and accelerate adoption of cleaner energy sources.
3. These incentives strengthen energy transition by making renewables as affordable as fossil fuels.

3. Tariffs and Border Adjustment Mechanisms

1. Tariffs discourage import of carbon-intensive goods, protecting low-carbon domestic industries.
2. Border carbon adjustments penalize products manufactured in countries with weak climate laws, reducing carbon leakage.

Legislative Measures for Climate Action

1. National Laws and Regulations

1. Governments enforce fuel efficiency standards, renewable energy mandates, pollution limits, and building efficiency codes.
2. Effective climate legislation establishes clear long-term targets and coordinates multiple sectors.

2. Clean Energy Standards

1. Require a specific percentage of electricity to come from renewable sources.
2. Stimulate investment in wind, solar, and hydropower.

3. National Adaptation Strategies and NAPAs

1. National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) help low-income countries identify urgent and immediate adaptation needs.
2. These plans focus on sectors like agriculture, water, health and coastal protection.
3. NAPAs help direct international funding and guide national policy.

Industry and Corporate Responses

1. Corporate Mitigation Strategies

1. Industries contribute significantly to global emissions, especially energy, transport, manufacturing, construction, and agriculture.
2. Many companies adopt mitigation strategies such as:
   1. Switching to renewable energy to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
   2. Improving energy efficiency in buildings, transport, and production lines.
   3. Electrifying transport fleets.
   4. Reducing emissions through low-carbon technologies.
   5. Using carbon offsets such as reforestation or carbon capture and storage.

Corporate Adaptation Strategies

1. Businesses face climate risks such as supply chain disruption, extreme weather damage, and resource shortages.
2. Corporate adaptation includes:
   1. Relocating production facilities away from hazard areas.
   2. Increasing supply chain resilience by diversifying suppliers.
   3. Designing climate-resistant infrastructure.
   4. Investing in insurance, risk assessments, and disaster planning.

Challenges for Industry

1. Some industries resist climate policies due to economic costs, short-term profit motives, or fear of competitive disadvantage.
2. Transitioning to renewable energy requires:
   1. High upfront investment.
   2. Workforce retraining.
   3. Technology replacement.
   4. Long-term planning beyond typical corporate timeframes.

NGO, Community & Civil Society Responses

Role of NGOs in Climate Governance

1. NGOs raise awareness, conduct research, implement community projects, and influence global policies.
2. They highlight gaps in government action and promote climate justice for vulnerable populations.
3. NGOs can coordinate local adaptation projects including rainwater harvesting, reforestation, and community education.
4. International NGOs such as Greenpeace, WWF, and Friends of the Earth advocate for stronger global commitments.

Community-Led Mitigation and Adaptation

1. Communities respond through local renewable projects, sustainable agriculture, urban greening, and ecosystem restoration.
2. Local adaptation strategies include raised housing, local flood defences, and community seed banks for climate-resilient crops.
3. Indigenous communities contribute traditional ecological knowledge, improving resilience of ecosystems and farming systems.
4. Community-scale responses are critical because climate impacts are experienced locally even when caused globally.

United Nations & Global Governance Mechanisms

The Role of the UNFCCC

1. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) coordinates global efforts to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations at levels that prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.
2. The UNFCCC provides an international framework enabling countries to negotiate emissions reductions and adaptation support.
3. It aims to ensure that climate action does not threaten food production, ecosystem functioning, or sustainable development.
4. The UNFCCC facilitates capacity-building, financial support, and technology transfer for LICs and climate-vulnerable nations.
5. The UNFCCC mandates global monitoring of emissions, progress reporting, and development of multinational climate policies.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

1. The IPCC assesses climate research and provides scientific consensus on climate change, vulnerabilities, and future projections.
2. It publishes Assessment Reports (AR) every 5–7 years summarising peer-reviewed scientific evidence.
3. IPCC reports guide policy decisions during COP negotiations, national strategy planning, and adaptation frameworks.
4. The IPCC does not conduct its own experiments; it synthesizes global data from thousands of scientific studies.
5. The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) emphasises increasing climate extremes, rapid warming, and rising global risks.

COP Summits (Conference of the Parties)

1. COP summits are annual gatherings of all UNFCCC member states to negotiate climate policies and review progress.
2. Each COP evaluates national contributions, climate finance, technological progress, and adaptation needs.
3. COP agreements are essential for coordinating global emission reductions, climate finance, and cross-border adaptation plans.
4. COP 27 (Sharm El-Sheikh, 2022) emphasized the need for deep, immediate, sustained emission cuts and highlighted a required 43% reduction in global GHG emissions by 2030.
5. COP decisions often include long-term pathways toward net-zero emissions, climate-resilient development, and renewable energy expansion.

International Agreements

1. International climate agreements strengthen global cooperation and establish shared responsibilities.
2. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) required industrialised countries to reduce emissions but failed due to weak participation and compliance.
3. The Doha Amendment (2012) extended Kyoto commitments with new reduction targets, but global impact remained limited.
4. The Paris Agreement (2015) replaced Kyoto and requires all parties to submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) aiming to limit warming to well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C.
5. International agreements provide structure for financial support, carbon markets, adaptation planning, and global transparency.

IPCC Emissions Scenarios & Their Implications

1. Future emissions depend on global economic growth, population trends, technological innovation, and political choices.
2. Due to uncertainty, the IPCC models a range of Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) reflecting different development patterns.
3. Each scenario corresponds to a different level of radiative forcing, representing extra energy trapped by greenhouse gases.
4. Scenarios help governments plan mitigation strategies and evaluate climate risks under different warming levels.

IPCC's Five Emissions Scenarios (SSPs)

Implications of IPCC Scenarios

Temperature & Sea-Level Rise

1. SSP1-1.9 & SSP1-2.6: Best case, warming is kept below 2°C, reducing extreme weather risks.
2. SSP2-4.5 & SSP3-7.0: Rising global temperatures (2.5-4°C), leading to frequent heatwaves and droughts.
3. SSP5-8.5: Worst case, warming exceeds 4°C, causing multi-meter sea-level rise and ecosystem collapse.

Economic & Social Impacts

1. Low-emission scenarios (SSP1-1.9, SSP1-2.6): Transition to green energy, economic growth, and reduced climate-related damages.
2. Middle scenarios (SSP2-4.5): Moderate impacts, some regions adapt better than others.
3. High-emission scenarios (SSP3-7.0, SSP5-8.5): Food shortages, water crises, mass migration, and economic instability.

Policy & Global Cooperation

1. SSP1-1.9 & SSP1-2.6: Requires net zero policies, carbon pricing, and international cooperation.
2. SSP3-7.0 & SSP5-8.5: Reflects policy failures, weak governance, and dependence on fossil fuels.

Projected Climate Impacts Across Scenarios

1. Higher warming correlates with increased frequency and intensity of climate extremes.
2. High-latitude regions warm faster than equatorial regions; land warms faster than oceans.
3. Low-lying coasts face severe sea-level rise, leading to flooding, erosion, and displacement.
4. Water cycle intensification increases both flood risk and drought severity.
5. Ocean impacts include marine heatwaves, coral bleaching, acidification, and reduced oxygen levels.
6. Permafrost thaw releases methane, accelerating warming.
7. Extreme weather events influence food security, health risks, and economic stability.

Importance of Scenario Modelling

1. Scenarios guide long-term planning for coastal defence, water policy, agriculture, and health resilience.
2. They help governments evaluate whether current commitments meet the 1.5–2°C targets.
3. Scenario analysis allows identification of adaptation deficits and emission gaps.
4. Policymakers use scenarios to negotiate stronger international commitments at future COP summits.
5. Scenarios highlight the urgency of early action: delaying mitigation increases the difficulty and cost of achieving safe temperature limits.

Personal and Behavioural Responses

Individual Mitigation Choices

1. Individuals reduce emissions by lowering energy use, using public transport, adopting renewable energy, and reducing waste.
2. Shifting to low-carbon diets (less beef and lamb) significantly reduces personal GHG footprints.
3. Individuals influence broader change by supporting sustainable companies, voting for climate-focused policies, and participating in community climate programs.
4. Home retrofitting, efficient appliances, and low-carbon heating reduce household emissions.

Personal Adaptation Measures

1. Individuals adapt by improving household cooling, securing water supplies, and preparing for climate-related risks.
2. Community-scale adaptation includes neighbourhood cooling strategies, tree planting, and flood-preparedness planning.
3. Personal adaptation increases resilience, especially in regions facing heatwaves, water scarcity, or extreme storms.