6.3A Mitigation and adaptation strategies Notes

Climate Change as a Global Problem

1. Climate change is a planetary-scale issue, meaning its drivers and impacts transcend borders, time zones and political boundaries.
2. No single country can successfully mitigate climate change because greenhouse gases mix globally, emissions released in one country affect the entire Earth system.
3. Local or national policies alone cannot prevent catastrophic warming; coordinated global action is required.

State Sovereignty Versus Global Responsibility

1. State sovereignty allows nations to control their own policies, resources, and emissions, yet climate change often requires constraints on domestic choices.
2. Countries must balance national interest with international responsibility, particularly when climate impacts disproportionately affect low income nations and vulnerable populations.
3. Some countries resist binding agreements due to concerns related to economic growth, industrial competitiveness, and geopolitical influence.

International Mechanisms for Cooperation

Negotiation Processes

1. Global negotiations occur primarily at COP meetings under the UNFCCC, where countries discuss mitigation targets, funding, adaptation strategies, and equity concerns.
2. Negotiations address climate finance, loss and damage, emission trajectories, and technology transfer.
3. Outcomes depend on diplomacy, political will, scientific input, and economic priorities.

Treaties

1. Treaties are legally binding agreements defining shared responsibilities.
2. The UNFCCC (1992) established the overarching framework recognising climate change as a shared challenge requiring global cooperation.
3. Many countries committed to the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), acknowledging unequal historical emissions.

Protocols

1. Protocols strengthen treaties by providing detailed commitments.
2. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set mandatory emission reduction targets for industrialised countries.
3. The Doha Amendment (2012) extended these obligations to 2020 but saw limited participation.

Conventions

1. Conventions formalise international cooperation.
2. Many environmental conventions shape climate-related actions across sectors including biodiversity, atmospheric protection, and pollution control.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

1. Under the Paris Agreement (2015), nations must submit NDCs outlining national climate targets, often renewed in five-year cycles.
2. NDCs vary in ambition based on national capacity, economic structure, and historical responsibility.

Cross-Border Carbon Mechanisms

Carbon Border Taxes

1. Carbon border taxes charge imported goods based on their embedded emissions, discouraging the relocation of polluting industries to countries with weaker rules.
2. Carbon border mechanisms aim to equalize carbon costs, ensuring domestic climate policies are not undermined by international trade.

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms (CBAMs)

1. The EU uses CBAM to impose carbon costs on imported cement, steel, fertiliser, and electricity.
2. CBAMs reduce carbon leakage, where companies shift production to countries with lower environmental standards.

Decarbonisation of the Global Economy

1. Decarbonisation refers to reducing the carbon intensity of economic activities by shifting energy production, consumption, infrastructure, and industry toward low-carbon systems.
2. Most global emissions arise from fossil-fuel use, making decarbonisation essential for stabilising climate systems.
3. Without rapid decarbonisation, global temperatures are projected to exceed 1.5°C to 2°C, triggering severe ecological, economic, and social impacts.

National Carbon Neutrality Targets

1. Many countries have announced long-term carbon neutrality goals.
2. EU, UK, Japan, and South Korea target 2050.
3. Germany aims for 2045.
4. China aims for 2060.
5. India aims for 2070.
6. Bhutan and Suriname remain carbon negative due to extensive forest sinks and low industrial emissions.

Three Pillars of Decarbonisation

1. Optimise (Reduce Energy Demand)

1. Enhancing building insulation, retrofitting homes, and improving industrial efficiency decreases overall demand.
2. Upgrading manufacturing systems and increasing circular economy practices reduce waste and emissions.
3. Reducing food waste and shifting consumption patterns lower the carbon footprint of households and businesses.

2. Electrify (Replace Fossil Fuel Technologies)

1. Electrifying vehicles, heating systems, and industrial processes cuts dependence on fossil fuels.
2. Expanding charging infrastructure and electric public transport systems supports long-term transition.
3. Efficient electric systems reduce overall emissions when powered by renewable sources.

3. Decarbonise (Clean and Renewable Energy Sources)

1. Expanding solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, and hydroelectric energy reduces reliance on fossil fuels.
2. Additional renewable strategies include green hydrogen and ocean-based energy technologies.
3. The phase-out of coal power is critical for rapid emission reductions.

Mitigation of Climate Change

1. Mitigation includes actions that reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions or increase the removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
2. Mitigation tackles the underlying causes of climate change rather than its consequences.
3. Adaptation deals with responses to impacts, while mitigation prevents future escalation.

Strategies That Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Household and Behaviour-Based Actions

1. Using public transport reduces emissions from private vehicles.
2. Shifting diets toward plant-based foods lowers methane emissions from livestock.
3. Using energy-efficient appliances reduces household energy demand.
4. Reducing waste decreases emissions from production, transport, and disposal of goods.

National-Level Strategies

1. Governments can set emission reduction targets, regulate carbon-intensive industries, and incentivise renewables.
2. Increasing recycling reduces landfill methane emissions.
3. Protecting forests prevents carbon loss and maintains ecosystem services.
4. Developing mass transit systems reduces carbon emissions from private transport.

Geoengineering Approaches

Solar Radiation Management (SRM)

1. Injecting sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere reflects sunlight and temporarily cools Earth.
2. Marine cloud brightening increases reflectivity of ocean clouds.
3. High-albedo surfaces reflect more sunlight in urban areas.
4. Space mirrors remain a theoretical approach.

Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)

1. Direct Air Capture removes CO₂ using chemical filters.
2. Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) produces energy and stores CO₂ underground.
3. Enhanced weathering accelerates natural chemical processes that absorb CO₂.
4. Ocean fertilisation stimulates phytoplankton growth to capture carbon.

Reducing Production of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)

Energy Sector Reductions

1. The energy sector produces the largest share of global GHG emissions, making decarbonisation essential.
2. Phasing out coal, the most carbon-intensive fossil fuel, significantly reduces national emissions.
3. Increasing solar, wind, hydro, geothermal, and tidal power replaces fossil fuel-based electricity.
4. Expanding smart grids improves energy efficiency and reduces transmission losses.
5. Electrifying heating systems using heat pumps reduces reliance on gas and oil.

Transport Sector Reductions

1. Electrifying road transport with electric vehicles (EVs) reduces emissions from gasoline and diesel.
2. Expanding public transport lowers per-capita emissions significantly.
3. Improving active transport systems such as cycling lanes reduces fuel consumption.
4. Transitioning to sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) lowers emissions from air travel.
5. Shifting freight from road to rail and shipping reduces GHG intensity.

Agriculture & Land-Use Reductions

1. Reducing methane from livestock using feed additives or dietary changes lowers CH₄ emissions.
2. Implementing precision agriculture minimises fertilizer use and reduces N₂O emissions.
3. Increasing agroforestry and perennial cropping boosts carbon storage in soils.
4. Banning open burning of crop residues prevents large methane and particulate emissions.
5. Protecting peatlands and wetlands prevents massive CO₂ emissions from drained soils.

Removing CO₂ from the Atmosphere

1. Enhancing Land-Based Carbon Sinks

1. Forests act as long-term carbon sinks by storing CO₂ in biomass, soils, and roots.
2. Reforestation increases carbon uptake by restoring forest cover.
3. Afforestation converts non-forest land into forest to increase long-term storage.
4. Protecting peatlands prevents the release of stored carbon accumulated over thousands of years.
5. Agroforestry increases carbon sequestration, soil health, and agricultural productivity.

2. Enhancing Ocean-Based Carbon Sinks

1. Oceans absorb approximately one quarter of global CO₂ emissions each year.
2. Protecting mangroves, seagrass beds, and salt marshes increases blue carbon storage.
3. Improving water quality supports phytoplankton growth, which absorbs atmospheric carbon during photosynthesis.

Adaptation Strategies for Climate Change

1. Adaptation refers to actions that reduce vulnerability to climate impacts rather than preventing climate change itself.
2. Adaptation improves resilience by modifying environments, infrastructure, or behaviors to withstand climate-related hazards.

Structural Adaptations

1. Sea walls protect coastal settlements from storm surges and rising sea levels.
2. Flood barriers, levees, and embankments reduce river flood risk.
3. Storm-resistant housing prevents fatalities during cyclones and hurricanes.
4. Irrigation systems and water storage technologies secure water supply during droughts.
5. Urban drainage systems reduce flash flood impacts in high-rainfall cities.

Non-Structural Adaptations

1. Zoning laws restrict construction in flood-prone or landslide-prone areas.
2. Early-warning systems provide alerts for cyclones, heat waves, and heavy storms.
3. Community education improves household preparedness for climate hazards.
4. Climate-resilient crop varieties reduce vulnerability in agriculture.
5. Insurance schemes help families financially recover from climate-related damage.

National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs)

1. NAPAs help Least Developed Countries (LDCs) identify urgent and immediate adaptation needs.
2. NAPAs prioritise low-cost, community-based, and rapid-implementation projects.
3. Funding comes from global institutions such as the UNFCCC, GEF (Global Environment Facility), and Green Climate Fund.
4. NAPAs focus heavily on water security, agriculture, public health, coastal protection, and disaster risk reduction.

Building Climate Resilience

1. Climate resilience involves strengthening community capacity to absorb shocks and recover.
2. Resilient communities diversify livelihoods to avoid dependence on climate-sensitive sectors.
3. Early-warning systems combined with community training reduce mortality and economic loss.
4. Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) uses forests, wetlands, and mangroves to buffer climate impacts.
5. Integrated national policies align adaptation with sustainable development goals (SDGs).