Contrasting Agricultural Choices Based on Local Soils and Climate

1. Different regions within the same biome can support completely different agricultural systems due to variations in soil type, rainfall, temperature, drainage, water availability, and ecosystem resilience.
2. Farmers choose systems that maximise productivity while remaining economically viable within these environmental limits.

Steppe & Prairie Biomes (Mollisols): Why Some Regions Grow Cereals While Others Ranch Livestock

1. Mollisols are among the world’s most fertile soils, containing high organic matter, deep humus layers, and excellent nutrient retention.
2. Areas of the steppe with reliable rainfall support cereal crop farming, especially wheat, maize, oats, and barley.
3. Regions with lower or more unpredictable rainfall cannot sustain cereal crops, leading farmers to choose extensive cattle or sheep ranching instead.
4. Cereal farming requires consistent moisture, whereas grasses can survive periodic droughts, making ranching more climate-resilient in dry steppe zones.
5. Mechanisation, irrigation, and global grain markets push wetter areas toward highly intensive cereal monocultures.

Tropical Rainforest Biomes (Oxisols): Soya Bean Agriculture vs Cattle Ranching

1. Oxisols are highly weathered, low-nutrient, acidic tropical soils with high iron/aluminium oxides and extremely low cation exchange capacity.
2. Soya bean production becomes viable only with lime application, phosphorus additions, and synthetic fertilisers, allowing commercial-scale cropping.
3. Cattle ranching is often more suitable in nutrient-poor zones where crop cultivation is not feasible, especially in areas newly deforested.
4. Ranching initially appears profitable but rapidly degrades soil, creating pasture exhaustion and encouraging further deforestation.
5. Oxisol-based agriculture is heavily dependent on industrial inputs, making sustainability difficult.

Desert Biomes (Aridisols): Irrigated Agriculture vs Ranching

1. Aridisols are dry, saline-prone soils with minimal organic matter and low natural fertility.
2. Where irrigation water is available (e.g., Nile Valley, Arizona), farmers grow dates, cotton, vegetables, and alfalfa.
3. Evaporation leaves salts behind, causing salinisation, which is a major threat to desert agriculture.
4. In regions without irrigation, extensive nomadic or semi-nomadic ranching dominates because livestock can graze sparse vegetation.
5. Temperature extremes limit crop viability but hardy animals (camels, goats, sheep) survive under harsh conditions.

Temperate Forest Biomes (Brown Earths): A Balance of Arable & Pastoral Agriculture

1. Brown earth soils are moderately fertile, well-drained, and rich in decomposer activity, supporting both crops and pasture.
2. These soils encourage mixed farming systems, where livestock and crops contribute to each other’s nutrient cycles.
3. Crop residue, manure, and grass leys maintain soil health through natural nutrient recycling.
4. Crop–pasture rotation improves long-term soil fertility and reduces pest buildup.

Alternative Farming Approaches

Soil Regeneration

1. Soil regeneration focuses on restoring soil organic matter, microbial communities, water-holding capacity, and nutrient cycling.
2. Practices include mulching, reduced tillage, legume rotation, composting, biochar application, and cover cropping.
3. Regenerated soils enhance carbon sequestration, improve crop resilience, and require less synthetic input.
4. Healthy soils increase infiltration, reducing erosion and nutrient loss.

Rewilding (Ecological Restoration on Farmland)

1. Rewilding restores ecosystems by allowing natural processes, native species, and ecological succession to return.
2. It may involve removing fences, restoring wetlands, reintroducing keystone species, or reducing intensive land uses.
3. Rewilding increases biodiversity, restores natural nutrient cycles, enhances pollination, and improves soil fertility.
4. Criticisms include loss of agricultural income, social resistance, risk of invasive species, and potential imbalance when predators are absent.

Permaculture (Designing Self-Sustaining Agroecosystems)

1. Permaculture creates agricultural systems that mimic the structure and function of natural ecosystems.
2. It prioritises biodiversity, nutrient cycling, closed-loop systems, minimal waste, and long-term resilience.
3. Techniques include guild planting, food forests, rainwater harvesting, mulching, nitrogen-fixing plants, and composting.
4. Permaculture seeks to reduce external inputs by using ecological interactions.

Non-Commercial Cropping

1. Non-commercial cropping includes subsistence crops, fodder crops, medicinal plants, and soil-improving species, not grown for sale.
2. This approach improves food security for local communities and reduces reliance on global markets.
3. Such crops often require fewer inputs and help maintain soil fertility.

Zero Tillage (No-Till Agriculture)

1. Zero tillage reduces soil disturbance by planting seeds directly into crop residues.
2. It maintains soil structure, increases water retention, and improves soil carbon storage.
3. Reduced machinery use lowers fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Challenges include weed pressure, reliance on cover crops, and initial transition costs.

Regenerative Farming Systems & Permaculture

1. Keep the soil covered at all times using mulches or cover crops to prevent erosion.
2. Minimise soil disturbance to protect fungi, microbes, and soil structure.
3. Maximise biodiversity using polycultures, intercropping, and long rotations.
4. Maintain living roots as long as possible to support microbial communities.
5. Integrate livestock to recycle nutrients, manage vegetation, and restore soil carbon.

Livestock Integration in Regenerative Systems

1. Livestock contribute manure, soil aeration, pest control, and vegetation management.
2. Chickens disrupt pest cycles, pigs clear vegetation, and cattle stimulate grass regrowth.
3. Proper grazing increases root depth, improves SOM, and accelerates nutrient cycling.
4. Overgrazing must be avoided as it causes erosion and carbon loss.

Mob Grazing (Holistic Planned Grazing)

1. Mob grazing uses dense herds for short periods, followed by long rest phases.
2. This mimics natural grazing by wild herbivores, improving nutrient distribution.
3. Short, intense grazing stimulates root growth and increases carbon sequestration.
4. Rest periods allow vegetation recovery, improving biodiversity and soil stability.
5. Risks include trampling damage if soil is extremely wet.

Plant-Based Diets and Regeneration

1. Plant-based diets reduce agricultural land demand because plants convert sunlight into food more efficiently than animals.
2. Regenerative systems can easily support diverse plant crops, improving food security.
3. Reducing livestock consumption reduces pressure on land, water, and deforestation.

Technological Innovations in Agriculture

1. High-Tech Greenhouses

1. High-tech greenhouses control temperature, humidity, lighting, and CO₂ levels to maximise photosynthesis.
2. Hydroponic systems recycle water, reducing water use by up to 90%.
3. Year-round production increases yields and supports urban food supplies.
4. Heating, lighting, and climate-control systems require significant energy, making sustainability dependent on renewable energy sources.
5. Iceland’s geothermal greenhouses demonstrate how natural energy can offset environmental costs.

2. Vertical Farming

1. Vertical farms use stacked layers to grow crops indoors using hydroponics or aeroponics.
2. They are ideal for cities with limited land and reduce transportation emissions by producing food near consumers.
3. LED lighting, climate control, and monitoring systems require high energy inputs.
4. Vertical farms produce high yields but rely on economic viability and renewable energy availability.

3. Other Innovations

1. Precision agriculture uses GPS, drones, and sensors for micro-targeting irrigation and fertiliser.
2. In-vitro (cultured) meat reduces land use but requires large energy inputs.
3. Solar-powered fertiliser production allows local nitrogen production without fossil fuels.
4. Aquaponics combines hydroponics with fish farming, recycling nutrients from fish waste.