2.8.3 Strengths and limitations of government policies to correct externalities Notes

Sweden's Carbon Tax

Introduction

In 1991, Sweden introduced a carbon tax to address the negative externalities associated with greenhouse gas emissions. This policy aimed to incentivize reductions in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions by imposing a tax on fossil fuels used for heating and transportation.

Policy Implementation

The initial tax rate was set at SEK 250 per metric ton of CO₂, equivalent to approximately $40 at that time. Over the years, the tax rate increased significantly, reaching SEK 1,190 ($126) per metric ton by 2019, making it one of the highest carbon taxes globally. The tax primarily targeted sectors such as heating and transportation, with certain industries receiving exemptions or reduced rates to maintain international competitiveness.

Challenges in Measuring Externalities

Determining the appropriate tax rate posed challenges due to difficulties in accurately quantifying the social cost of carbon. Setting the tax too low could result in insufficient emission reductions, while a too high tax might impose undue economic burdens. Additionally, the effectiveness of the tax depended on the availability of viable alternatives to fossil fuels for consumers and businesses.

Degree of Effectiveness

Between 1990 and 2018, Sweden achieved a 27% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, despite significant economic growth during this period. The most substantial emission reductions occurred in heating residential and industrial buildings, attributed to the carbon tax and a shift towards CO₂-free electricity production through hydropower and nuclear power. However, the tax's effectiveness was somewhat limited by exemptions granted to certain industries, which may have reduced the overall potential for emission reductions.

Consequences for Stakeholders

Short-Term Impacts:

• Consumers: Faced increased costs for heating and transportation fuels, leading to higher household expenses, particularly affecting low-income households.
• Producers/Firms: Industries reliant on fossil fuels experienced higher operational costs, potentially reducing profitability and competitiveness, especially in energy-intensive sectors.
• Government: Generated additional revenue from the tax, which was not earmarked for specific purposes but contributed to the overall government budget.
• Society: Initial resistance to the tax due to increased living costs and concerns over economic impacts.

Long-Term Impacts:

• Consumers: Benefited from improved air quality and environmental conditions resulting from reduced emissions.
• Producers/Firms: Encouraged to innovate and invest in energy-efficient technologies, leading to long-term cost savings and enhanced competitiveness in a low-carbon economy.
• Government: Established a reputation as a leader in climate policy, demonstrating that economic growth can be compatible with emission reductions.
• Society: Experienced overall environmental and health benefits from sustained emission reductions, contributing to global climate change mitigation efforts.

Questions:

1. Define the term negative externality and explain how the carbon tax aims to address it.
2. Explain, using the case study, the challenges of measuring the social cost of carbon when designing a carbon tax.
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of Sweden’s carbon tax in achieving its objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, considering both short-term and long-term impacts.
4. Discuss the impact of the carbon tax on stakeholders, including consumers, producers, and the government, in the context of equity and efficiency.

European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS)

Introduction

Launched in 2005, the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is the largest and longest-running carbon market in the world. It was created to address the negative externalities of greenhouse gas emissions by setting a cap on total emissions from power plants, factories, and airlines operating within the EU. Firms could then trade emission permits, creating a market-based approach to reducing pollution.

Policy Implementation

The EU set an overall cap on emissions, which gradually decreased over time to ensure reductions. Firms received or purchased emission allowances (permits), with each permit granting the right to emit one ton of CO₂.

• If firms emitted less than their allowances, they could sell surplus permits for profit.
• If firms emitted more, they had to buy additional permits or face penalties.
• Over time, free allocations were reduced, and more permits were auctioned to enhance market efficiency.

Challenges in Measuring Externalities

Determining the appropriate cap level was difficult:

• A cap set too high risked making the system ineffective, as firms could pollute without constraint.
• A cap set too low imposed heavy restrictions, risking economic slowdown.
  Additionally, fluctuations in permit prices sometimes created uncertainty for firms, making it harder to plan long-term investments in low-carbon technologies.

Degree of Effectiveness

Between 2005 and 2019, emissions from sectors covered by the EU ETS fell by 35%, even as the EU economy grew. The system contributed to significant reductions in power sector emissions, largely by encouraging a shift away from coal and boosting investment in renewables.
However, effectiveness was limited in early years due to an over-allocation of permits, which drove prices too low to incentivize real change. Reforms, such as the Market Stability Reserve (2019), were introduced to tackle this issue and stabilise permit prices.

Consequences for Stakeholders

Short-Term Impacts:

• Consumers: Faced higher energy prices as firms passed on the cost of purchasing permits.
• Producers/Firms: High-emission industries faced increased costs; however, firms with lower emissions could profit from selling unused permits.
• Government: Incurred administrative costs to establish and monitor the system, but also generated revenue from permit auctions.
• Society: Saw initial reductions in pollution, though uneven across industries.

Long-Term Impacts:

• Consumers: Benefited from improved air quality and reduced health risks.
• Producers/Firms: Incentivised to innovate, invest in renewables, and adopt cleaner production technologies, gaining competitive advantages in green markets.
• Government: Enhanced reputation as a global climate leader, showing that emissions reduction could be aligned with economic growth.
• Society: Experienced sustained environmental improvements, contributing significantly to the EU’s climate targets and the global fight against climate change.

Questions

1. Define the term negative externality and explain how tradable permits aim to address it.
2. Using the case study, explain the challenges of setting an effective emission cap in a permit trading system.
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of the EU ETS in reducing emissions, considering both its early limitations and later reforms.
4. Discuss the impacts of tradable permits on stakeholders, including consumers, producers, and the government, in terms of equity and efficiency.