Enculturation
Enculturation: The process through which individuals acquire the cultural norms and values of their home culture. It involves learning and maintaining the behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes necessary within a culture.
- Bidirectional Relationship: Enculturation reflects a two-way interaction, where individuals are shaped by cultural norms, and these norms evolve through collective behaviors within the culture.
- Cultural Transmission: The mechanism behind enculturation, involving the passing of cultural norms from one generation to the next.
- This includes active teaching (e.g., parents instructing children) and observational learning (e.g., watching and imitating others).
- Enculturation Mechanisms: The methods by which cultural knowledge is transferred, including:
- Direct Instruction: Explicit teaching of cultural norms and values.
- Observation: Learning by watching and imitating the behaviors of others. This is heavily related to the Social Cognitive Theory.
- Participation: Engaging in cultural practices to internalize norms.
Key Studies
Case studyBarry et al. (1959)
Aim
To investigate the relationship between economic factors and child-rearing practices across cultures.
Method
A cross-cultural correlational study comparing 46 cultures categorized as high or low in food accumulation. The researchers measured child training practices, focusing on traits such as obedience, responsibility, independence, and achievement in children aged 5 to adolescence.
Procedure
Data were collected through ethnographic methods, including interviews and observations. Cultures with high food accumulation, like agricultural societies, were contrasted with those relying on hunting and gathering.
Results
- High food accumulation societies emphasized obedience and conformity to ensure agricultural success and community survival.
- Low food accumulation societies valued independence and innovation, as their economic systems allowed for risk-taking without jeopardizing long-term survival.
Conclusion
Parenting practices adapt to the economic systems of cultures, which in turn influence behaviors like conformity or independence.
Evaluation
- The large cultural sample increases generalizability.
- Data triangulation increases the validity and reliability of the results.
- This study is correlational in nature because it identifies an association between economic systems and parenting styles but does not establish causation.
- Lacks temporal validity because it was conducted in 1959. Its findings may not fully reflect modern parenting norms.
Odden and Rochat (2004)
Aim
To explore the role of observational learning in enculturation within non-Western societies, specifically among Samoan children.
Method
A longitudinal naturalistic observation study involving 28 children (aged 4–12) in a rural Samoan village. Researchers also conducted semi-structured interviews with adults and collected parental belief questionnaires.
Procedure
One researcher resided in the village for 20 months, observing children's participation in daily life and cultural activities. No formal teaching was provided by adults; children were expected to learn through observation.
Results
- Samoan children acquired skills like fishing and household chores by watching elders, without direct instruction.
- The open architecture of Samoan homes enabled continuous observation, fostering passive learning.
- Cultural concepts such as respect for authority and societal hierarchy were learned implicitly.
Conclusion
In Samoan culture, observational learning is a central mechanism of enculturation, contrasting with active, participatory learning dominant in many Western societies.
Evaluation
- The study has high ecological validity because it was conducted in a natural setting.
- Findings support Bandura’s social learning theory.
- The long-term immersion of the researcher in the community strengthens the credibility of the data.
- As a naturalistic observation, the study lacks control over variables, making it difficult to establish a direct causal relationship.
- The sample size is small and limited to one Samoan village, which may reduce the generalizability.
- Researcher bias could be a concern, as prolonged involvement in the community may have influenced the observations.
Lamm et al. (2018)
Aim
To explore how parenting styles influence children's ability to delay gratification across cultures.
Method
A cross-cultural study comparing German and Cameroonian preschoolers using the marshmallow test.
Procedure
Children were presented with a treat and told they would receive an additional treat if they waited. Researchers also gathered data on parental values and styles.
Results
- 70% of Cameroonian children delayed gratification, compared to 30% of German children.
- Cameroonian parenting emphasized hierarchical relational socialization and obedience, while German parents encouraged autonomy and individuality.
Conclusion
Enculturation through parenting styles impacts self-regulation behaviors like delaying gratification.
Evaluation
- The study is correlational and does not establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship.
- The sample is limited, reducing the generalizability of findings.
Critical Thinking
Alternative Explanations
- Socioeconomic Status: Access to resources can shape parenting styles, which in turn affect behaviors like conformity or independence.
- Families with fewer resources might prioritize survival-oriented values, while those with greater resources may emphasize individualism.
- Globalization: Growing exposure to global values is blurring traditional cultural boundaries, leading to hybrid identities and shifts in traditional enculturation processes.
- There’s a risk of cultural homogenization where globalization may lead to the erosion of local cultures. This could result in the loss of unique cultural identities and traditions.
- Education Systems: Formal education often supplements or even overrides familial enculturation, teaching norms and values that may not align with those of the home culture.
- A standardized educational system's values can sometimes clash with personal or familial values, leading to tension between enculturation from the home and from educational institutions.
Cultural Relativity and Modern Applications
- Historical Norms: Research such as Barry et al. (1959) reflects mid-20th-century cultural and economic systems.
- With globalization, parenting practices and economic systems may have evolved, altering the dynamics of enculturation.
- Modern Learning Tools: Studies like Odden and Rochat (2004) on observational learning in Samoa might contrast with contemporary digital learning tools, which emphasize active participation and individualized instruction.
- Cultural Fluidity: Findings from traditional, homogeneous societies may not generalize to multi-ethnic, urban environments, where cultural norms are more fluid and harder to define.
Mechanisms Beyond Parenting
- Peers and Media: Children often model behaviors observed in their friends or favorite media personalities, highlighting the growing role of social media in shaping cultural identity.
- Education Systems: Schools play a crucial role in instilling shared cultural values, often promoting norms that foster societal cohesion.
- Religious and Community Leaders: These figures often serve as custodians of cultural traditions, teaching norms and values through rituals, teachings, and community activities.
