Soviet-US Relations 1947-79 Notes

Key Questions

1. What was the US policy of Containment and why was it implemented?
2. What were the successes and failures of the Containment policy?
3. What was the Soviet policy of Peaceful Coexistence and why was it implemented?
4. How far did the policy of Peaceful Coexistence reduce Cold War tensions between the USA and USSR.
5. What was the policy of Detente and why was it implemented?
6. How far did the policy of Detente reduce Cold War tensions between the USA and USSR.

US Containment Policy

1. What was Containment?

1. Containment was a US foreign policy designed to stop the spread of communism beyond areas already under Soviet control after World War II.
2. The policy was based on the belief that communism would expand if not actively resisted, particularly in economically weak or politically unstable countries.
3. Containment was influenced by the ideas of George Kennan, who argued that Soviet expansion could be checked through firm and consistent resistance.
4. The policy involved the use of economic aid, military support, political alliances, and, when necessary, armed force.
5. Between 1947 and 1962, containment became the central principle of US Cold War strategy.

2. Successes of Containment (1947–1962)

1. The Truman Doctrine successfully contained communism in Greece and Turkey by providing military and financial aid, preventing communist takeovers in both countries.
2. The Marshall Plan strengthened Western Europe economically, reducing the appeal of communism and helping to stabilise countries such as France and Italy, where communist parties were strong.
3. During the Berlin Airlift (1948–49), the USA successfully resisted Soviet pressure without using force, ensuring that West Berlin remained outside communist control.
4. The creation of NATO in 1949 strengthened containment by establishing a permanent military alliance that deterred Soviet aggression in Western Europe.
5. In the Korean War (1950–53), the USA and its allies prevented South Korea from being taken over by communism, demonstrating that containment could be enforced through military action.
6. The peaceful resolution of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) prevented the spread of Soviet nuclear influence in the Americas and reinforced the credibility of containment.

3. Failures and Limitations of Containment (1947–1962)

1. The USA failed to prevent the communist victory in China in 1949, where Mao Zedong established the People’s Republic of China, representing a major blow to containment.
2. The Korean War resulted in enormous loss of life and expense, while ending in stalemate, showing that containment could be costly and inconclusive.
3. In Cuba, the rise of Fidel Castro in 1959 led to the establishment of a communist state close to the USA, highlighting a major failure of containment in the Western Hemisphere.
4. Early US involvement in Vietnam during the late 1950s and early 1960s failed to stabilise the region and instead drew the USA into a long and complex conflict.
5. Containment often supported authoritarian regimes as long as they were anti-communist, which damaged the USA’s moral credibility and created long-term instability.

4. Overall Assessment of Containment (1947–1962)

1. Containment was largely successful in preventing the spread of communism in Western Europe and protecting key strategic regions.
2. However, it was far less effective in Asia and the developing world, where nationalism and local conditions weakened US influence.
3. By 1962, containment had become a permanent feature of US foreign policy, but it had also contributed to global tension, proxy wars, and the constant risk of nuclear conflict.

USSR Peaceful Coexistence Policy

1. What was the Peaceful Coexistence Policy?

1. Peaceful coexistence was a Soviet foreign policy that accepted the continued existence of capitalist and communist states without direct war.
2. The policy became most closely associated with Nikita Khrushchev, who emerged as Soviet leader after Stalin’s death in 1953.
3. Khrushchev argued that nuclear weapons made direct war between the superpowers too dangerous and potentially catastrophic.
4. Peaceful coexistence did not mean the end of ideological rivalry, as Khrushchev believed communism would still eventually outperform capitalism.
5. The policy aimed to reduce tensions, avoid direct military conflict, and improve relations through diplomacy and negotiation.

2. Successes of Peaceful Coexistence (1953–1961)

1. The end of the Korean War in 1953 reduced the risk of direct confrontation between the USA and the USSR and demonstrated a willingness to compromise.
2. The Geneva Summit of 1955 improved dialogue between the superpowers and reduced tensions, even though no formal agreements were signed.
3. Khrushchev’s Secret Speech in 1956, which criticised Stalin, helped reduce fear of aggressive Soviet expansion in the West.
4. The Austrian State Treaty (1955) led to the withdrawal of all occupation forces and the creation of a neutral Austria, showing that cooperation was possible.
5. Cultural exchanges and scientific cooperation, such as agreements on visits, education, and technology, helped humanise relations between the two sides.

3. Limitations and Failures of Peaceful Coexistence (1953–1961)

1. The Soviet crushing of the Hungarian Uprising in 1956 showed that peaceful coexistence did not apply to Eastern Europe, where the USSR maintained control through force.
2. The launch of Sputnik in 1957 increased Cold War competition by intensifying the arms race and the space race, heightening US fears.
3. Khrushchev’s repeated threats over Berlin and the ongoing refugee crisis from East Germany undermined trust between the superpowers.
4. The U-2 spy plane incident in 1960, when a US aircraft was shot down over the USSR, caused the collapse of the Paris Summit and seriously damaged relations.
5. The construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 symbolised the failure of peaceful coexistence to resolve fundamental divisions between East and West.

4. Overall Assessment of Peaceful Coexistence up to 1961

1. Peaceful coexistence helped reduce the risk of direct nuclear war and encouraged periods of dialogue and negotiation.
2. However, it failed to resolve core ideological and territorial disputes, particularly over Eastern Europe and Berlin.
3. By 1961, the policy had reached its limits, as rising tensions and the building of the Berlin Wall showed that rivalry and division remained central to the Cold War.

Détente

1. What was Détente?

1. Détente was a policy of reduced tension and improved relations between the USA and the USSR during the later stages of the Cold War.
2. The policy developed after the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), which highlighted the dangers of nuclear confrontation.
3. Both superpowers recognised that continued rivalry was costly, dangerous, and economically damaging.
4. Détente aimed to manage competition through dialogue, arms control agreements, and cooperation, rather than eliminate ideological differences.
5. Although rivalry continued, détente sought to prevent crises from escalating into direct war.

2. Reasons for the Development of Détente (after 1963)

1. The Cuban Missile Crisis convinced both sides that nuclear war could occur by miscalculation or accident.
2. The USA was weakened by the Vietnam War, which reduced its willingness to confront the USSR directly.
3. The USSR faced serious economic problems and wanted to reduce military spending and access Western technology and trade.
4. The development of nuclear parity, known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), meant neither side could win a nuclear war.
5. Improved relations between the USA and China increased Soviet fears of isolation, encouraging cooperation with the West.

3. Successes of Détente (1963–1979)

1. The Hotline Agreement (1963) established a direct communication link between Washington and Moscow, reducing the risk of misunderstandings during crises.
2. The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963) banned nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, underwater, and in space, helping to limit radioactive fallout.
3. The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) (1968) aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to new states and encouraged peaceful nuclear cooperation.
4. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) (1972) led to agreements that limited the number of ICBMs and SLBMs held by both superpowers.
5. The Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty (1972) restricted missile defence systems, reinforcing the balance of MAD.
6. The Helsinki Accords (1975) improved relations by recognising European borders and promoting human rights, trade, and cultural cooperation.
7. Increased trade, scientific exchanges, and diplomatic visits reduced hostility and improved communication between East and West.

4. Limitations and Failures of Détente (1963–1979)

1. Détente did not end ideological rivalry, as both superpowers continued to compete for influence around the world.
2. The USA and USSR continued to fight proxy wars, particularly in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia.
3. Arms control agreements often limited numbers but not the destructive capacity of weapons, allowing both sides to develop more advanced nuclear technology.
4. The USSR’s intervention in Czechoslovakia (1968) showed that détente did not apply within the Eastern Bloc.
5. The USA criticised the USSR for failing to uphold the human rights commitments of the Helsinki Accords.
6. Relations deteriorated in the late 1970s due to events such as Soviet support for communist movements in Africa and Central America.
7. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 effectively ended détente, as it was seen by the USA as aggressive expansion.

5. Overall Assessment of Détente (1963–1979)

1. Détente successfully reduced the risk of direct nuclear conflict and improved communication between the superpowers.
2. However, it failed to end Cold War competition, which continued through proxy conflicts and military build-ups.
3. By 1979, détente had collapsed, demonstrating that cooperation was fragile and dependent on wider international stability rather than genuine trust.