Nkrumah and Ghana - Origins and Rise of Independence Movements Notes

Key Questions

1. What was the role of nationalism in the rise of the Ghanaian independence movement?
2. What was the role of political ideology in the rise of the Ghanaian independence movement?
3. How important were socio-economic conditions in the rise of the Ghanaian independence movement?
4. What was the role of war in the rise of the Ghanaian independence movement?

Background of Colonization

1. Ashanti Dominance in the 18th Century

1. By the 18th century, the Ashanti Kingdom had become the dominant regional power in the central region of modern Ghana.
2. The Asantehene (Ashanti King), seated upon the Golden Stool, symbolized divine authority and unity of the Ashanti people.
3. The Ashanti Empire’s strength came from its ability to trade slaves for muskets and European goods, enhancing military power and territorial control.

2. European Presence and the Slave Trade

1. During the 18th century, British, Dutch, and Danish traders operated along the West African coast, focusing primarily on the transatlantic slave trade.
2. The Ashanti supplied slaves in exchange for weapons and manufactured goods, securing their regional dominance.
3. However, between 1804 and 1814, all three nations abolished the slave trade, severely weakening the Ashanti economy and influence.

3. Expansion of British Influence (19th Century)

1. After abolishing slavery, the British shifted focus inland to prevent the Ashanti from supplying illegal slaves to other nations.
2. This led to a series of Ashanti-British conflicts in the 19th century, with the Ashanti initially resisting British control.
3. By 1874, however, the southern coastal regions were formally declared the British Gold Coast Colony.
4. It took three more decades for the British to fully subdue the Ashanti and northern territories, with Ashanti declared a Crown Colony in 1902.
5. The northern regions became the Protectorate of the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast.

The Role of Nationalism and Political Ideology

1. Economic Development under British Rule

1. The Gold Coast economy evolved through stages:
   1. Gold trade in early colonial times.
   2. Slave trade in the 17th–18th centuries.
   3. Palm oil production in the 19th century.
   4. Cocoa farming by the early 20th century. By WWII, Gold Coast cocoa supplied half the world’s chocolate.
2. Economic prosperity spurred education and infrastructure development.
3. By 1881, 5,000 children were enrolled in 139 primary schools, mainly in the southern regions.
4. A Western-educated African elite and professional class emerged.

2. The Growth of Nationalism (Late 19th – Early 20th Century)

1. In the 1890s, the Aborigines’ Rights Protection Society (ARPS) formed to oppose colonial land bills transferring “waste and unoccupied lands” to the government.
   1. ARPS united chiefs and the educated elite, demonstrating political unity and early African activism.
2. In 1898, ARPS sent a delegation to London, successfully lobbying for the bill’s withdrawal.
3. In 1920, Joseph E. Casely-Hayford, a prominent lawyer, founded the National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA).
   1. The NCBWA demanded African representation and elected councils across British West African colonies.
4. Though the Colonial Office refused to meet the delegation, the movement inspired widespread nationalist sentiment in the Gold Coast.

3. Influence of Pan-Africanism

1. By the 1920s, many West African students studied in the United States, where they encountered racial segregation and Black resistance movements.
2. Influenced by leaders like Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Du Bois, they became active in Pan-African Congresses.
3. The 1945 Manchester Pan-African Congress became a training ground for future African independence leaders, particularly from Anglophone West Africa.
4. Historian J.D. Fage notes it transformed Pan-Africanism from a diasporic movement into a political force for African liberation.

4. Kwame Nkrumah – Nationalist and Pan-African Leader

1. Kwame Nkrumah, who would later lead Ghana to independence, embodied both nationalist and Pan-Africanist ideals.
2. His vision blended self-determination for Ghana with a broader goal of African unity and solidarity.
3. Nkrumah’s leadership drew from the intellectual legacy of Pan-Africanism and the political activism of earlier nationalist movements.

5. Governor Sir Alan Burns and the 1946 Constitution

1. Governor Sir Alan Burns (1941–47) sought to appease growing nationalism through constitutional reform.
2. The 1946 Constitution allowed 18 elected African members in a 30-member Legislative Council, though many were nominated by chiefs.
   1. Despite European oversight, Africans now held a majority, marking a step toward self-government.
3. Burns viewed reform as a preventive measure, stating “The secret of good administration is to be one jump ahead of the people.”
   1. He believed the educated elite were becoming less compliant and sought to pre-empt unrest through limited inclusion.

6. Unrest and the 1948 Accra Riots