IB History Kenyatta and Kenya - Origins and Rise of Independence Movements Notes

Key Questions

1. What led to the growth of nationalism in Kenya before the Second World War?
2. What was the impact of the Second World War on the growth of Nationalism?

The Growth of Nationalism before the Second World War

1. The Scramble for Africa

1. The European race or "scramble" for colonies in Africa was triggered by the Berlin Conference of 1884–85, convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to decide a common colonial policy in Africa.
   1. At the time, 80% of Africa remained under traditional and local control, with European influence limited to the coast.
2. Following the conference, European powers raced to claim territory, establish borders, and assert ownership, with no regard for indigenous cultures or ethnic boundaries.
3. By 1914, most of Africa was under European colonial control.

2. British Colonization of Kenya

1. In 1895, the United Kingdom declared rule over the East Africa Protectorate, later becoming a British colony in 1920.
2. White settlers were encouraged to migrate and took control of fertile land in the Aberdare Mountains, known as the White Highlands.
   1. This had a devastating impact on the Kikuyu tribe, for whom land was life, creating deep resentment that would fuel later nationalist movements.

3. Exploitation of African Labour

1. White settlers lacked farming experience and depended heavily on African labour. As one settler stated, “We have stolen his land, now we must steal his limbs.”
2. A series of colonial regulations forced Kikuyu people off their land and into the wage economy:
   1. African Reserves were created, confining ethnic groups to designated areas. Overcrowding forced many to work on European farms, where they faced abuse and exploitation.
   2. Hut and poll taxes compelled Africans to earn wages to pay them, driving them into colonial labour markets.
   3. By 1920, all Kenyans had to carry identity cards (kipande), a symbol of oppression under British rule.
   4. Africans were barred from growing profitable cash crops like tea, coffee, and sisal, preserving settler economic dominance.

4. The ‘Squatter’ System

1. A sharecropping system known as ‘squatting’ developed, where Kikuyu families lived on European farms, working part of the year in exchange for small plots of land.
   1. This arrangement became essential to settler agriculture but was later seen as a threat, leading to harsh restrictions.
2. As population pressures increased, land hunger caused malnutrition and soil degradation.
3. In 1938, settlers enforced cattle confiscations in Machakos, selling them cheaply to white farmers, further dispossessing Africans.

5. Political Inequality

1. White settlers dominated politics, administration, and society, while Africans were excluded.
2. In 1920, settlers gained self-government, controlling the Legislative Council and consolidating their privileges.
3. The colonial administration co-opted African leaders to enforce policies.
4. Among the Kikuyu, who traditionally had no chiefs, colonial-appointed chiefs were viewed as illegitimate and tasked with tax collection and labour recruitment.
   1. This created internal divisions within Kikuyu society, as chiefs were rewarded with land and wealth.

6. Social Impact and Missionary Influence

1. Missionaries established schools and clinics, promoting Christianity and Western values while eroding indigenous cultures.
2. Education and healthcare required fees, and traditional customs were condemned.
3. Those who retained traditional beliefs were denied education, deepening class divides between educated elites and uneducated rural Kikuyu.

7. Rise of Early Nationalism

1. Colonial policies fueled nationalism, especially among the Kikuyu.
2. In 1921, The Young Kikuyu Association (YKA), later the East African Association (EAA), was founded by educated youth led by Harry Thuku.
3. The EAA demanded African representation, protested low wages, and opposed restrictions on cash crop farming and missionary interference in cultural practices.
4. After a protest in March 1922, Thuku was arrested and exiled for over eight years.
5. In 1928, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was formed with Jomo Kenyatta as General Secretary, continuing the struggle for rights and representation.

The impact of the Second World War on the growth of Nationalism

1. Economic and Social Impact of the Second World War

1. The Second World War had a major impact on the growth of nationalist movements in Asia and Africa.
2. In Africa, rapid economic development occurred during the war, driven by the need to supply raw materials and food for the British war effort.
3. Major cities, such as Nairobi, expanded rapidly in the post-war period, creating a more politically conscious population.

2. Challenging the Myth of White Supremacy

1. African soldiers who fought in imperial and Commonwealth forces came into close contact with ordinary British soldiers, challenging the myth of white superiority.
2. Many veterans returned home with new global awareness, inspired by nationalist movements elsewhere, such as India’s independence struggle.
3. These experiences led to greater expectations of self-determination and political rights among returning Africans.

3. Unfulfilled Promises of Reform

1. Many veterans believed their sacrifices during the war should be rewarded with greater autonomy.
2. Sir Philip Mitchell, the British governor from 1944, promised increased African representation in government but planned no significant changes for almost a decade.
3. Instead, the war weakened colonial administration and strengthened white settlers, who filled administrative roles during the wartime manpower shortage.

4. Settler Domination and Discrimination

1. The Nairobi government became aligned with settler interests, introducing discriminatory policies against Africans, including:
   1. Tighter control of black farmers, dictating crops, methods, and markets.
   2. Mass evictions between 1946 and 1952, as soldier settlers demanded land, displacing 100,000 squatters and forcing them into "homelands".
2. Urban African veterans, returning after fighting for liberty, faced racial segregation and repression at home.
3. A colour bar was imposed, excluding Africans and Asians from public facilities, hotels, and restaurants.
4. While British veterans received land, loans, and jobs, Kikuyu soldiers returned to poverty and worsening conditions.

5. Growth of Resentment and Nationalism

1. These injustices fuelled resentment and nationalist sentiment.
2. Earlier nationalist efforts, like the Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) founded in 1921 by Harry Thuku, inspired later movements.
3. Kenyan nationalism re-emerged in 1944 with the formation of the Kenya African Union (KAU), a moderate nationalist party led by Jomo Kenyatta, calling for the return of the White Highlands.

6. Rise of the Mau Mau Movement

1. KAU struggled to mobilize the masses, as real momentum came from displaced Kikuyu squatters in Olenguruone.
2. Here, traditional Kikuyu oathing practices were radicalized to unite the community in resistance.
3. The Mau Mau movement emerged from this context, becoming a Land and Freedom Army focused on fighting British rule.
4. Led by young militants, the Mau Mau split from moderate nationalists, replacing constitutional protest with violent resistance.
5. Though primarily a rural insurgency, the movement gained urban support amid rising unemployment and declining post-war living standards.