Ben Bella and Algeria - Origins and Rise of Independence Movements Notes

Key Questions

1. What was the role of nationalism in the rise of the Algerian independence movement?
2. What was the role of political ideology in the rise of the Algerian independence movement?
3. How important was religion and race in the rise of the Algerian independence movement?
4. How important were socio-economic conditions in the rise of the Algerian independence movement?
5. What was the role of war in the rise of the Algerian independence movement?

French Colonial Policy and the Rise of Algerian Nationalism

1. French Policy of Assimilation

1. The official French colonial policy was one of “assimilation”, rooted in the belief that French civilization was superior and that colonies would benefit from integration into all aspects of French life - social, political, cultural, and linguistic.
2. Arthur Girault (1921) described assimilation as “an increasingly intimate union between the colonial and metropolitan territory”, suggesting that colonies were extensions of France itself, not separate entities.
3. Under this ideology, colonies like Algeria were considered départements, akin to administrative regions within France.
4. Algeria was particularly significant as it was deeply integrated into France, divided into three départements, and granted direct political representation in Paris.

2. Algeria Under French Rule

1. Colonization began in the 19th century, with 37,374 French settlers by 1841, known as colons or pieds-noirs (“black feet”), named after their cheap black shoes.
2. By 1945, the pieds-noirs population reached approximately one million, many of whom were born in Algeria and considered it their homeland.
3. The pieds-noirs community was diverse in wealth and ideology:
4. Ultras: Conservative hardliners opposing any reform.
5. Liberals (20–25%): Supported limited colonial reforms.
6. Despite the rhetoric of assimilation, French rule was inherently racist indigenous Algerians (mainly Muslims) were denied equality and political power, while colons maintained dominance through their French identity.

3. Maurice Viollette and Reform Efforts

1. Maurice Viollette, a Radical Party member, was a critic of colonial abuses in Congo and Indochina.
2. Appointed Governor-General of Algeria (1925), he aimed to win Muslim hearts and minds through reform and investment in health and education.
3. His reformist approach faced fierce opposition from settlers, who labeled him “Viollette the Arab”, leading to his resignation in 1927.
4. Viollette warned that denying Algerian Muslims political rights would lead to inevitable independence movements.

4. The Rise of Algerian Nationalism

1. Algerian nationalism emerged from deep political, social, and economic discrimination faced by the Muslim majority.
2. The movement was anti-colonial and anti-imperialist, with Islamism forming its central ideological core.
3. Islamic scholars like Rashid Rida (1865–1935) advocated for resistance to imperialism and the creation of an Islamic state under sharia law.
4. Many historians argue that Islamism later became the most powerful mobilizing ideology during the Algerian War of Independence.

5. Post-WWI Influences and Disillusionment

1. Algerian Muslims fought for France in World War I, expecting greater rights and recognition afterward.
2. US President Woodrow Wilson’s “14 Points”, particularly Point 5, inspired hopes for self-determination and fair treatment of colonial populations.
3. However, France ignored these principles, continuing repressive and discriminatory policies in Algeria, fueling nationalist frustration.

6. Nationalist Movements: Messali Hadj & Ferhat Abbas

1. Etoile Nord-Africaine (North African Star) founded in 1926, initially linked to the French Communist Party, was dissolved in 1929 under government pressure.
   1. In 1936, the Blum-Viollette Proposal sought to grant limited citizenship to some Muslims while allowing religious legal autonomy (e.g., marriage, inheritance).
   2. The pieds-noirs reacted with violent protests, forcing the French government to abandon the proposal.
2. Messali Hadj established the Parti du Peuple Algérien (PPA) in 1937, advocating greater autonomy rather than immediate independence.
3. Ferhat Abbas founded the Union Populaire Algérienne (UPA) in 1938, calling for equal rights and the promotion of Algerian culture and language.
4. French refusal to engage with these moderate nationalists marked a turning point, as historian Martin Evans notes, the failure of peaceful reform opened the path to violent resistance and revolutionary nationalism.

Economic Factors and the Emergence of the Algerian Independence Movement

1. Land Ownership and Economic Inequality

1. Economic disparity was a core driver of Algerian nationalism.
2. Muslim land was expropriated by European settlers (colons), creating a deeply unequal agrarian system.
3. By the early 20th century, 2% of the population (mainly Europeans) controlled 25% of all land, while Muslim farmers were often landless or impoverished.
4. Colons enjoyed significantly higher incomes, while Muslim Algerians suffered chronic poverty and high unemployment.
5. The French government actively restricted industrialization and limited the development of key agricultural sectors, ensuring Algeria remained economically dependent and non-competitive with France.

2. Impact of the Great Depression (1930s)

1. The Great Depression severely weakened Algeria’s economy, exposing its colonial vulnerability.
2. Exports plummeted from 10.6 billion francs (1930) to 8 billion francs (1932), triggering a sharp economic downturn.
3. The Muslim population, already marginalized, bore the brunt of this crisis.
4. By 1936, Algeria’s Muslim population rose to 6 million, putting immense pressure on limited resources and agricultural productivity.
5. Widespread debt among Muslim farmers forced many to abandon rural areas - a rural exodus - seeking urban employment that barely existed.
6. Resulting urban overcrowding, unemployment, and economic frustration created a tense atmosphere, leading to riots (1933–1934) across major cities.

3. Economic Hardship During the Second World War

1. WWII conditions intensified economic grievances, deepening resentment toward French rule.
2. Rationing policies were viewed as discriminatory, with claims that European settlers received better provisions.
3. At a 1944 Biskra meeting, discontent was summed up by the remark:“Hitler gives 250 grams of wheat a day, and we who are free, we only receive 200 grams. All this must be done away with.”
4. Rumours of favoritism, unequal rations, and continued shortages, worsened by a poor harvest and harsh winter, led to famine in 1945.
5. Starvation and hardship further inflamed nationalist sentiment, reinforcing calls for economic justice and independence.

Post-War Economic Disparities and Social Unrest

1. Although France experienced a post-war boom, economic benefits were unevenly distributed across Algeria.
   1. Coastal regions, home to Europeans, saw modest development, while interior regions, inhabited by Muslim Algerians, remained impoverished.
2. By the late 1940s:
   1. 8.4 million Muslims lived in extreme poverty.
   2. 1 million were underemployed, and 2 million were unemployed.
   3. The average agricultural worker laboured only 65 days per year, reflecting seasonal instability and structural underemployment.
3. Historian Martin Evans emphasizes that rural Algeria had become “overwhelmingly hostile to French Algeria,” as economic despair merged with political alienation.

Social and Religious Tensions

1. Social Inequality, Racism, and Daily Humiliation

1. According to historian Martin Evans, Algerians felt angry and humiliated under French colonial rule.
2. The Muslim majority was subjected to systemic racism from both European settlers (colons) and colonial police, fostering a sense of daily injustice and resentment.
3. Many Algerians were forced to rely on their wits to survive amid economic marginalization and social exclusion.
4. The constant discrimination eroded dignity and tested self-control, pushing many toward nationalist activism as a means of reclaiming pride and agency.

2. Educational Disparities and Illiteracy

1. Education became a symbol of inequality under French rule.
   1. There were 1,400 primary schools available for 200,000 Europeans, compared to only 699 schools for 1.25 million Muslim children.
2. This vast educational imbalance reinforced social stratification, as Muslim Algerians were denied access to the same opportunities for advancement as settlers.
   1. As a result, by 1945, illiteracy rates among Muslims stood at 85%, leaving the majority excluded from civic participation and political awareness.
3. The education gap became a powerful grievance, highlighting the colonial system’s inherent injustice and fueling nationalist sentiment among a new generation seeking social equality.

3. Religion as a Unifying and Mobilizing Force

1. Islam played a central role in shaping Algerian identity and resistance to French rule.
2. Under colonial law, Muslim Algerians were French subjects, but not citizens. Citizenship could only be obtained by renouncing Islamic personal law, a process known as “foreswearing”.
3. This requirement was widely seen as betraying one’s faith, effectively forcing Algerians to choose between religion and citizenship.
4. Islamic faith and traditions therefore became a symbol of resistance, helping unite diverse ethnic and cultural groups under a shared spiritual and national identity.

4. Islamic Rhetoric in the Independence Struggle

1. As the nationalist movement evolved, groups like the FLN (Front de Libération Nationale) used Islamic rhetoric to inspire resistance and legitimize the struggle.
2. The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) was framed as a jihad - a holy struggle against colonial oppression.Fallen fighters were honoured as martyrs (shuhada), infusing the movement with religious meaning and moral justification.
   1. Thus, the fight for independence was seen not only as a political liberation from French control but also as a spiritual mission to restore Muslim dignity and autonomy.

The Second World War as a Catalyst for Algerian Independence

1. Global Impact of the Second World War

1. The Second World War (1939–1945) profoundly weakened European empires and exposed their vulnerabilities.
2. France, once a dominant colonial power, had been defeated and occupied by Nazi Germany, shattering its image of strength and superiority.
3. Its colonies in Indo-China had been captured by Japan, further undermining confidence in French imperial authority.