International response to German and Italian aggression (1940) Notes

The International Response to German and Italian Aggression (1940)

The Outbreak of War: German Aggression in Poland

1. Hitler's Calculations and Misjudgments

1. Despite British and French assurances to Poland, Hitler doubted their resolve to act.
2. He was surprised by the Anglo-Polish military alliance on August 25, 1939, and Mussolini's unpreparedness for war.
3. Hitler delayed his attack on Poland from August 26 to September 1, hoping to divide Britain and Poland through last-minute proposals.

2. The Invasion of Poland

1. On September 1, 1939, German forces invaded Poland, using blitzkrieg tactics.
2. Britain and France issued an ultimatum to Germany, which was ignored, leading to their declaration of war on September 3.

The Phoney War and the Fall of France

1. The Phoney War (October 1939 – April 1940):
   1. After the fall of Poland, a period of inactivity ensued on the Western Front.
   2. Hitler offered peace proposals, but these were rejected by Britain and France, who remained skeptical of his intentions.
2. German Expansion in 1940:
   1. April 1940: Germany occupied Denmark and Norway, securing strategic ports and resources.
   2. May 10, 1940: Germany launched a simultaneous attack on Holland, Belgium, and France.
   3. The rapid German advance forced British troops to evacuate from Dunkirk in June 1940.
   4. France surrendered on June 22, 1940, with northern France occupied by Germany and a puppet government established in Vichy.

The Battle of Britain and the Blitz

1. Operation Sea Lion:
   1. Hitler planned to invade Britain but needed air superiority over the English Channel.
   2. The Battle of Britain (summer and autumn 1940) saw the Royal Air Force (RAF) successfully defend against the Luftwaffe.
2. The Blitz:
   1. Frustrated by the RAF's resilience, Hitler shifted to bombing British cities, hoping to break civilian morale.
   2. Despite the devastation, Britain remained defiant, forcing Hitler to postpone his invasion plans.

Hitler's Shift to the East: Operation Barbarossa

1. The Decision to Invade the Soviet Union
   1. By mid-1941, with Britain undefeated, Hitler turned to his long-term goal of Lebensraum in the East.
2. Operation Barbarossa, launched in June 1941, aimed for a quick Soviet defeat, allowing Germany to refocus on Britain.
3. Consequences of the Invasion
   1. The invasion of the Soviet Union marked a critical turning point, stretching German resources and opening a second front.
   2. This decision ultimately contributed to Germany's defeat in the war.

The Policy of Appeasement: Causes and Consequences

What Was Appeasement?

1. A diplomatic policy of making concessions to avoid conflict, most associated with Britain's approach to Germany and Italy in the 1930s.
2. The Munich Agreement of 1938, where Britain and France allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia.

Why Did Britain Pursue Appeasement?

1. Public Opinion
   1. The horrors of World War I created a strong anti-war sentiment.
   2. The British public favored collective security through the League of Nations.
2. Perceived Justice of Dictators' Demands
   1. Many British politicians believed the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh on Germany.
   2. Chamberlain thought grievances could be resolved through negotiation.
3. Lack of Alternatives
   1. No political party in Britain offered a clear alternative to appeasement.
   2. The Labour Party opposed rearmament, focusing instead on collective security.
4. Economic Pressures
   1. The Great Depression weakened Britain's economy, making rearmament difficult.
   2. High unemployment and fears of a balance of payments crisis limited military spending.
5. Global Commitments and Defense Priorities
   1. Britain prioritized defending its empire and trade routes over European allies.
   2. The Dominions (e.g., Canada, Australia) were unwilling to support another European war.
6. Neville Chamberlain's Influence
   1. Chamberlain personally detested war and believed in diplomacy.
   2. He distrusted the League of Nations and preferred direct negotiations with Hitler.

Why Did France Align with Britain's Policy?

1. Economic and Political Instability
   1. France faced severe economic challenges and frequent changes in government.
   2. Political divisions weakened its ability to respond to German aggression.
2. Dependence on Britain
   1. France relied heavily on Britain as its strongest ally.
   2. When Britain pursued appeasement, France felt compelled to follow suit.
3. Defensive Military Strategy
   1. France's military planning focused on defense, exemplified by the Maginot Line.
   2. This limited its ability to support Eastern European allies offensively.

The Role of the League of Nations and the United States

The League of Nations: A Failed Guardian of Peace

1. Structural Weaknesses
   1. The League lacked the support of major powers like the United States.
   2. Its decision-making process was slow and often ineffective.
2. Inability to Enforce Sanctions
   1. The League's response to aggression, such as Italy's invasion of Abyssinia, was weak.
   2. Key war materials like oil were excluded from sanctions, rendering them ineffective.
3. Erosion of Credibility
   1. Each failure to act decisively weakened the League's authority.
   2. Britain and France prioritized their national interests over collective security.

The Impact of U.S. Isolationism

1. Neutrality Acts
   1. The U.S. passed laws in the 1930s to avoid involvement in European conflicts.
   2. These acts banned the sale of arms to belligerents, limiting support for countries resisting aggression.
2. Economic Focus
   1. The Great Depression shifted U.S. priorities to domestic recovery.
   2. Public opinion strongly opposed entering another war.
3. Consequences for Europe
   1. Without U.S. support, Britain and France struggled to contain expansionist powers.
   2. The absence of American economic and military backing weakened the League of Nations.

The Soviet Union's Role in the International Response

1. Early Isolation
   1. Western democracies distrusted the Soviet Union due to its communist ideology.
   2. The USSR was excluded from the League of Nations until 1934.
2. Shift Toward a Popular Front
   1. Stalin sought alliances against fascism, joining the League and signing pacts with France and Czechoslovakia.
   2. However, the Munich Agreement in 1938, which excluded the USSR, convinced Stalin that Britain and France were unreliable.
3. The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)
   1. Frustrated by Western appeasement, Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Hitler.
   2. This agreement allowed Germany to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention.