The Breakdown of Collective Security
- The League of Nations was intended to maintain peace, but its failure to act decisively against aggression undermined its credibility.
- Key failures included:
- Japan's invasion of Manchuria (1931): The League's inability to enforce sanctions or military action.
- Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (1935–36): Limited sanctions and the collapse of the Stresa Front.
Note
- The Stresa Front was an agreement between Italy, Britain, and France in 1935 to oppose German rearmament and maintain the status quo in Europe.
- However, it quickly disintegrated due to conflicting interests and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which allowed Germany to expand its navy.
The Rise of Authoritarian Powers
- Germany: Hitler's foreign policy aimed to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, expand German territory, and establish dominance in Europe.
- Italy: Mussolini pursued imperial expansion and sought to establish Italy as a great power.
- Japan: Expansion in Asia and the Pacific, driven by economic needs and militaristic ideology.
Tip
- When analyzing diplomatic alignments, consider the interplay between national interests, ideological motivations, and economic pressures.
- These factors often explain why countries chose cooperation or confrontation.
The Shift Toward Bilateral and Regional Agreements
1. Germany's Diplomatic Strategy
- Non-Aggression Pact with Poland (1934): Secured Germany's eastern border temporarily.
- Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935): Allowed Germany to expand its navy, undermining the Treaty of Versailles and the Stresa Front.
- Rome-Berlin Axis (1936): Formalized cooperation between Germany and Italy, aligning their foreign policies.
Example
- The Rome-Berlin Axis was announced by Mussolini in 1936, describing the alliance as a "vertical line" around which Europe would revolve.
- This marked a significant shift in Italy's foreign policy, moving away from cooperation with Britain and France.
2. Italy's Diplomatic Realignment
- Stresa Front (1935): Initially aligned with Britain and France to oppose German rearmament.
- Invasion of Abyssinia (1935–36): Alienated Britain and France, pushing Italy closer to Germany.
- Anti-Comintern Pact (1937): Joined Germany and Japan in opposing communism, further distancing Italy from the Western democracies.
Common Mistake
- It's a common misconception that Italy was always aligned with Germany.
- In fact, Mussolini initially opposed Hitler's ambitions, particularly regarding Austria.
- The shift toward Germany was gradual and driven by Italy's isolation after the Abyssinian Crisis.
3. Japan's Role in European Diplomacy
- Anti-Comintern Pact (1936): Aligned with Germany against the Soviet Union.
- Tripartite Pact (1940): Formalized the Axis Powers, linking Japan's ambitions in Asia with Germany and Italy's goals in Europe.
Analogy
- Think of the shifting alliances in Europe as a game of chess.
- Each move, whether a treaty, invasion, or diplomatic agreement, was calculated to gain strategic advantage, often at the expense of long-term stability.
The Impact of Economic and Ideological Factors
1. Economic Pressures
- The Great Depression weakened economies and fueled aggressive expansion as a means of securing resources and markets.
- Germany sought Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe, while Italy aimed to create an empire in Africa and the Mediterranean.
Note
Lebensraum was a key component of Nazi ideology, justifying territorial expansion as necessary for the survival and prosperity of the German people.
2. Ideological Motivations
- Fascism and Nazism promoted militarism, nationalism, and expansionism.
- The failure of democracy in countries like Germany and Italy led to the rise of authoritarian regimes that rejected international cooperation.
Theory of Knowledge
- To what extent do economic factors outweigh ideological motivations in shaping foreign policy?
- Consider how historians might weigh these influences differently when analyzing the actions of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
- Consider how historians might weigh these influences differently when analyzing the actions of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
The Consequences of Changing Alignments
1. Erosion of Collective Security
- The League of Nations was sidelined as countries pursued unilateral or bilateral agreements.
- The failure to contain aggression in the 1930s emboldened authoritarian powers.
Example
- The Munich Agreement (1938), which allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland, is a key example of appeasement.
- Britain and France hoped to avoid war, but the agreement only encouraged further aggression by Hitler.
2. Polarization of Europe
- The formation of the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) created a clear division between authoritarian and democratic states.
- Britain and France, initially focused on appeasement, began rearming and seeking alliances to counter the Axis threat.
Self review
- How did the failure of the League of Nations contribute to the rise of bilateral and regional agreements in the 1930s?
- Can you identify specific examples where these agreements undermined collective security?
3. The Path to World War II
- The breakdown of diplomacy and the rise of aggressive expansionism set the stage for global conflict.
- The invasion of Poland by Germany in 1939, followed by declarations of war by Britain and France, marked the failure of diplomatic efforts to maintain peace.
Theory of Knowledge
How do historians balance the use of primary sources, such as treaties and speeches, with the broader context of economic and ideological factors when analyzing diplomatic history?
