WW2 in Pacific: Practices of War and the Impact on the Outcome Notes

WW2 in the Pacific: Practices of war and their effect on the outcome

Key Questions

1. What were the relative strengths of the combatants in WW2 in the Pacific?
2. What were the strategic developments of the war?
3. What role did technological developments and the mobilisation of human and economic resources play in the outcome of the war?

1. The combatants of the war

British Forces in the Asia-Pacific Region

1. Britain’s early military presence in the Pacific was focused on territories like India, Burma, and Singapore, with additional garrisons stationed in Hong Kong and other minor holdings.
2. The Royal Navy was primarily engaged in the Atlantic and Mediterranean due to the strategic importance of defending Britain’s supply routes after the war began in Europe.
3. The defence of Burma relied heavily on the British Indian Army, which eventually reached around 30,000 troops, though they were often under-equipped and lacked sufficient training or support.
4. The retreat from Burma was devastating: only about 17,000 soldiers managed to return to India.
5. Singapore’s defence also depended largely on Indian troops, with the garrison eventually reaching a strength of over 130,000.
6. When Singapore fell to the Japanese, more than 80,000 British and Commonwealth troops were taken prisoner following General Percival’s surrender.

Chinese Resistance Against Japan

1. Both Chinese Nationalist forces under Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) and Communist forces led by Mao Zedong fought against nearly 2 million Japanese soldiers during the war.
2. Jiang’s army had a core of about 230,000 effective troops, but was spread thin across the country with an additional 300 poorly led, ill-equipped divisions of limited combat ability.
3. Mao’s Communist forces expanded during the war to around 400,000 fighters, including both conventional soldiers and guerrilla units.

United States

1. Over the course of the war, the U.S. Army committed 20 divisions specifically to combat operations in the Pacific theatre.
2. The U.S. Marine Corps expanded significantly, growing to six divisions with a total strength of approximately 485,000 personnel.
3. The Marines also developed their own air support units, giving them greater independence and operational flexibility.
4. As of October 1941, the U.S. Pacific Fleet consisted of:
   1. 3 aircraft carriers
   2. 9 battleships
   3. 8 cruisers
   4. 40 destroyers
5. By the end of the war, the Pacific Fleet had undergone massive expansion, reaching:
   1. 23 battleships
   2. 65 cruisers
   3. 26 fleet carriers

Australia

1. At the start of World War II, Australia’s navy was small despite the vast coastline it needed to protect, its main warships included just six cruisers of varying sizes.
2. The standing army consisted of only around 3,000 professional soldiers, supported by about 80,000 reservists with uneven levels of training and readiness.
3. The Royal Australian Air Force had a limited fleet of roughly 250 aircraft at the outset of the war.
4. By the war’s end, Australia’s military had grown dramatically to over 1 million personnel.
5. Australian forces served in most of the major battle zones during the conflict and endured approximately 50,000 casualties.

Japan

1. At the start of the invasion of China in 1937, Japan’s army fielded approximately 24 divisions and had access to around 5,000 aircraft.
   1. Through a combination of conscription and military indoctrination, the size of the army expanded to 50 divisions by 1941.
   2. By that same year, Japan’s army and navy collectively operated 130 air squadrons, each with 12 to 24 aircraft.
2. Just before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan could call upon over 3 million military personnel, though their level of training varied widely.
3. In 1939, Japan was producing more than 4,400 aircraft per year, nearly double the U.S. output at that point.
   1. However, Japan’s aircraft industry saw only modest growth by 1941, while U.S. production surged to over 26,000 aircraft annually, thanks to Allied demand and full-scale mobilisation.
4. By the end of the war:
   1. Japan reached an output of about 11,000 aircraft per year.
   2. The United States produced nearly 50,000 aircraft annually.
5. Despite the size of its military, Japan’s forces were overstretched throughout the conflict. China remained the main focus of Japanese military efforts:
   1. By 1945, approximately 1.8 million Japanese soldiers were stationed in China.
   2. This left fewer troops available to defend Japan itself as the Allies advanced toward the home islands.

2. Strategic developments of the war

Japanese Expansion and Initial Successes (Dec 1941 – Mid-1942)

1. Japan pursued a rapid offensive to seize territory rich in oil, rubber, and minerals to support its war economy, particularly in Southeast Asia and the Pacific.
2. Simultaneous attacks were launched on:
   1. Pearl Harbor – disabling the US Pacific Fleet’s battleships.
   2. Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Dutch East Indies – aiming to establish a self-sufficient “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.”
3. Japan expected to cripple the US quickly and force a negotiated peace before American industrial power could be fully mobilized.
4. Early victories gave Japan control over a vast empire stretching from Burma to the Solomon Islands.

Shift in Initiative: Coral Sea and Midway (May–June 1942)

1. Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942):
   1. First naval battle where opposing ships never saw each other, fought entirely with carrier-based aircraft.
   2. Tactical draw but strategic US-Australian victory as it halted Japan’s advance on Port Moresby (Australia).
2. Battle of Midway (June 1942):
   1. US intelligence cracked Japanese codes and prepared an ambush.
   2. US Navy sank four Japanese aircraft carriers, the core of their naval air power.
   3. Marked the decisive turning point, Japan lost the strategic initiative and moved to a defensive posture.

The Guadalcanal Campaign (Aug 1942 – Feb 1943)

1. First major Allied land offensive in the Pacific, aimed to prevent Japan from threatening supply lines to Australia.
2. Brutal jungle warfare with high casualties on both sides.
3. US Marines initially landed unopposed, but Japanese reinforcements prolonged the battle for six months.
4. Naval battles around the island further degraded Japanese sea power.
5. Success here confirmed that Japan could be defeated in ground combat and set the stage for further offensives.

Island Hopping Strategy (1943–45)

1. Rather than retake every Japanese-held island, US forces bypassed strongholds, capturing strategic islands to build airfields and naval bases.
2. Each island taken allowed the Allies to extend air superiority and support the next operation.
3. Major examples:
   1. Tarawa (1943) – heavy US Marine casualties proved the tenacity of Japanese defence.
   2. Kwajalein, Eniwetok, Saipan, Tinian, and Guam – placed Japan within range of strategic bombing.
4. The strategy was designed to minimize Allied casualties while steadily strangling Japanese control in the Pacific.

The Philippines Campaign and Battle of Leyte Gulf (1944–45)

1. General MacArthur returned to the Philippines, fulfilling his 1942 promise.
2. Battle of Leyte Gulf (Oct 1944):
   1. Largest naval battle in history.
   2. Japanese navy attempted to prevent US landings but suffered massive losses, including most of its remaining capital ships.
   3. Severed Japan from oil supplies in Southeast Asia.
3. Symbolically and strategically critical, restored US presence in a former colony and neutralized Japan’s ability to fight at sea.

Final Assaults: Iwo Jima and Okinawa (1945)

1. Iwo Jima was vital for emergency landings and fighter escort for B-29 bombers.
   1. Fierce resistance from entrenched Japanese defenders.
   2. 26,000 US casualties, over 20,000 Japanese defenders killed.
2. Okinawa was a gateway to Japan, staging area for planned invasion of the home islands.
   1. Introduced mass use of Kamikaze attacks.
   2. One of the bloodiest battles of the Pacific war: over 100,000 Japanese and 50,000 US casualties.
3. These battles exposed the likely cost of a mainland invasion, influencing the decision to use atomic bombs.

Endgame: Strategic Bombing and Atomic Weapons (1944–45)

1. After capturing Saipan, Guam, and Tinian, the US launched a strategic bombing campaign using B-29 Superfortresses.
2. Initially used high-altitude precision bombing, but shifted to low-level incendiary bombing, which devastated Japan’s wooden urban areas (e.g. Tokyo firebombing killed 100,000).
3. The submarine blockade cut off vital imports of food and oil, leading to starvation and collapse of war production.
4. Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima (6 Aug) and Nagasaki (9 Aug), combined with Soviet invasion of Manchuria, led to Japan’s surrender on 15 August 1945.

3. Technological developments

Aircraft Carriers and Naval Aviation

1. The Pacific War was the first major conflict where aircraft carriers replaced battleships as the dominant naval platform.
2. Carriers allowed long-range offensive power across vast ocean spaces, crucial in a theatre where island bases were often far apart.
3. Key developments:
   1. Carrier-based aircraft (e.g. F6F Hellcat, SBD Dauntless) played decisive roles in battles like Coral Sea, Midway, and the Philippine Sea.
   2. The US mastered the coordination of carrier groups, combining air, surface, and submarine forces for rapid, flexible deployment.
   3. Deck landings and logistics (fuel, ammunition, spare parts) were refined to keep carriers operational for extended periods.
   4. Japanese carriers were poorly protected compared to American designs and lacked the capacity to absorb losses.

Strategic Bombing and the B-29 Superfortress

1. After capturing islands like Saipan, Tinian, and Guam, the US launched sustained strategic bombing campaigns against Japan.
2. The B-29 Superfortress:
   1. A revolutionary long-range heavy bomber with pressurized cabins, advanced fire control systems, and the ability to fly at high altitudes beyond the range of many Japanese fighters.
   2. Flew from the Mariana Islands directly to Japan, bypassing earlier range limitations.
   3. Used for both high-altitude precision bombing (against factories, oil depots) and low-level incendiary raids (notably the Tokyo firebombing in March 1945, which killed ~100,000 people).
3. The B-29 was also the delivery system for the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Radar, Codebreaking, and Communications

1. Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging):
   1. Provided early warning of incoming Japanese air raids or naval movements.
   2. Crucial during defensive operations (e.g. Battle of the Philippine Sea and Okinawa), helping detect kamikaze attacks in time to intercept.
2. Codebreaking (MAGIC and ULTRA):
   1. US intelligence units deciphered Japanese military codes, most importantly the JN-25 naval code.
   2. Played a pivotal role in the Battle of Midway: US forces intercepted plans and set a trap that led to the destruction of four Japanese carriers.
   3. Consistent intelligence breakthroughs allowed the US to anticipate and counter Japanese strategies throughout the war.
3. Secure communication networks (e.g. Navajo code talkers in the US Marines) ensured operational secrecy and rapid coordination during battle.

Amphibious landing technology

1. Development of specialised landing craft such as LCVPs (Higgins boats) enabled rapid beach landings under fire.
2. Amtracs (amphibious tractors) allowed for direct transport of troops and supplies from ship to shore across coral reefs and rough terrain.
3. Portable piers, airstrips, and pontoon docks allowed rapid establishment of logistics hubs on captured islands.

Atomic Bomb Development

1. The Manhattan Project developed two types of nuclear weapons: uranium-based ("Little Boy") and plutonium-based ("Fat Man").
2. These were used on Hiroshima (6 Aug 1945) and Nagasaki (9 Aug 1945).
3. The bombs brought immediate and unconditional surrender, eliminating the need for a costly land invasion of Japan.

4. Mobilisation of human and economic resources

Industrial Production and Economic Power

1. The United States leveraged its enormous industrial base to outproduce all Axis powers combined.
2. Under the direction of the War Production Board (WPB) and Office of War Mobilization, factories across the US shifted from civilian goods to military hardware.
3. Key achievements:
   1. Aircraft: Over 300,000 planes produced, including fighters, bombers, and transport aircraft.
   2. Ships: 88 aircraft carriers, 350 destroyers, 200 submarines, and over 2,700 Liberty ships for troop and supply transport.
   3. Tanks and Vehicles: Massive output of tanks, trucks (GMCs), jeeps, and amphibious vehicles used in both island and jungle warfare.
   4. Ammunition and Weapons: Billions of rounds of ammunition, rifles, mortars, and flamethrowers for ground combat.
4. The US out-produced Japan at every level, and Japan’s limited access to raw materials (especially oil and steel) increasingly crippled its war effort.

Manpower and Conscription

1. Over 16 million Americans served in the armed forces during WWII, with roughly 8.3 million in the Army, and over 3 million in the Navy and Marines.
2. The Selective Training and Service Act (1940): the first peacetime draft in US history, ensured a steady supply of trained soldiers.
3. In the Pacific theatre:
   1. The US deployed 20 Army divisions and 6 Marine divisions, supported by hundreds of thousands of Navy and Air Force personnel.
   2. The Marine Corps grew from 66,000 personnel in 1940 to over 485,000 by 1945.
4. WACs (Women’s Army Corps) and WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) allowed women to serve in non-combat roles, freeing up more men for front-line duty.

Civilian Contribution and the Home Front

1. Civilian industries adapted rapidly, with major corporations like Ford, General Motors, Boeing, and Lockheed turning to war production.
2. The concept of "Total War" was embraced:
   1. Civilian consumption was reduced through rationing (e.g. rubber, gasoline, food staples).
   2. War bonds raised over $180 billion to fund the military effort.
   3. Women entered the workforce in huge numbers: 6 million+ became "Rosie the Riveters", producing weapons, planes, and ships.
3. The government used propaganda campaigns to boost morale and sustain public support for the long war in the Pacific.

Logistics, Supply Chains, and Global Reach

1. The Pacific war demanded enormous logistical operations due to the vast distances between US bases and combat zones.
2. Innovations in naval supply enabled mobile task forces to stay at sea longer:
   1. Floating supply depots, repair ships, and mobile hospitals moved with the fleet.
   2. "Seabees" (Construction Battalions) built ports, runways, and infrastructure on remote islands often while under fire.
3. The US maintained multiple theaters of operation simultaneously, including Europe, demonstrating an unprecedented ability to mobilise and sustain global warfare.

Impact on Victory

1. The scale and speed of American mobilisation:
   1. Overwhelmed Japanese defensive capacity.
   2. Sustained long-term strategic bombing.
   3. Enabled the successful implementation of Island Hopping, with constant resupply and reinforcements.
2. Japan, by contrast, lacked both natural resources and industrial capacity, and its dependence on vulnerable shipping lanes further undermined its ability to respond effectively.