Japan and the First World War (1914–1919)
- When war broke out in 1914, Japan joined the Allied Powers under the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, seizing the opportunity to expand its influence in Asia.
- Japan captured German possessions in China’s Shandong Province and islands in the Pacific, extending its imperial reach.
- The war boosted Japan’s industrial production and exports, as European powers were preoccupied with fighting in Europe.
- Economic growth led to social tensions, including inflation and labor unrest, exposing weaknesses in Japan’s domestic structure.
- Japan emerged from the war as a regional power, but its aggressive diplomacy created tension with Western nations, especially China and the United States.
Definition
Twenty-One Demands (1915)
- A set of demands imposed on China by Japan to expand its political and economic control, provoking international criticism.
Definition
Shandong Question
- The postwar dispute over control of the former German territories in China’s Shandong Province, which Japan sought to retain.
Case study
The Paris Peace Conference (1919)
Japan’s Goals and Achievements
- Japan attended the Paris Peace Conference as one of the Five Great Powers (alongside Britain, France, Italy, and the USA).
- It successfully secured control of German concessions in Shandong and former German Pacific territories as League of Nations mandates.
- Japan also gained international recognition as a major power, participating in the League of Nations and global decision-making.
- Japanese diplomats proposed a racial equality clause in the League Covenant, reflecting a desire for recognition and respect among Western powers.
- Although the clause received majority support, it was rejected by the United States and Britain, revealing enduring racial bias in international politics.
Consequences for Japan
- The rejection of the racial equality clause caused widespread resentment in Japan, fueling nationalist anger and anti-Western sentiment.
- Chinese outrage over Japan’s control of Shandong led to the May Fourth Movement (1919), a major nationalist uprising in China.
- Japan’s aggressive diplomacy alienated other Asian nations and strained relations with the United States.
- While Japan’s territorial gains were substantial, its international reputation suffered, undermining liberal diplomats and strengthening nationalist voices.
- The conference highlighted Japan’s growing dilemma between Western alignment and Asian imperial ambitions.
The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) and Its Effects
- The Washington Naval Conference was convened by the United States to address the naval arms race and growing tensions in the Pacific.
- Japan, the United States, and Britain sought to reduce military spending and avoid conflict after World War I.
- The resulting Five-Power Treaty (1922) imposed limits on capital ships with a ratio of 5:5:3 for the US, Britain, and Japan, respectively.
- The Four-Power Treaty ended the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and established mutual consultation over Pacific security.
- These treaties temporarily improved international relations but also created resentment within Japan’s military establishment.
Case study
The Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922)
Aims and Agreements
- The United States organized the conference to promote naval disarmament and stability in East Asia.
- Japan agreed to the Five-Power Treaty, accepting naval limits to maintain peace and reduce military expenditure.
- The Nine-Power Treaty reaffirmed the Open Door Policy in China, recognizing Chinese sovereignty but also preserving foreign privileges.
- Japan withdrew its troops from Shandong, improving relations with China temporarily.
- The conference marked a brief period of cooperation and diplomacy, reducing tensions between Japan and the Western powers.
Impact on Japan
- Many Japanese naval officers viewed the 5:5:3 ratio as a national humiliation, claiming it treated Japan as inferior to Western powers.
- The end of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance left Japan diplomatically isolated, heightening insecurity.
- Civilian leaders, who supported the treaties, were later blamed for compromising Japan’s prestige.
- The conference deepened divisions between moderates advocating internationalism and militarists favoring expansion.
- By the late 1920s, economic problems and nationalism overshadowed the cooperative spirit of Washington, paving the way for militarist dominance.
Common Mistake
- Treating the Paris and Washington conferences as isolated events rather than as part of Japan’s evolving struggle between international cooperation and nationalism.
- Overlooking the domestic impact of post-war diplomacy, especially how perceived Western discrimination fueled ultranationalist ideology.
Exam technique
- Link Japan’s foreign policy goals to both economic interests (markets, resources) and psychological motives (status, equality).
- Use key statistics and treaties to show factual precision: 5:5:3 naval ratio, Twenty-One Demands 1915, racial equality clause 1919.
- Show how short-term diplomatic gains at Paris and Washington contributed to long-term resentment and militarism.
- In “assess” questions, weigh Japan’s successes in diplomacy against the ideological backlash at home.
Theory of Knowledge
- How do perceptions of equality and recognition shape a nation’s foreign policy?
- To what extent can international agreements promote peace if they reinforce existing power hierarchies?
- Does economic opportunity justify expansionist policy in the aftermath of war?
Self review
- Assess the impact of the First World War on Japan’s international standing and domestic politics.
- Examine the significance of the Paris Peace Conference (1919) in shaping Japan’s relations with both the West and Asia.
- To what extent did the Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) contribute to the rise of militarism and nationalism in Japan during the 1920s?
