Causes of the Vietnam War
- The Vietnam War emerged from the division of Vietnam after the Geneva Accords, conflicting visions for national unification, and Cold War strategic competition.
- The Geneva Accords of 1954 divided Vietnam at the 17th Parallel, creating communist North Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh and anti-communist South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem.
- Elections meant to unify Vietnam were never held when Diem refused, fearing a communist victory.
- The South Vietnamese government became increasingly authoritarian, prompting rebellion among peasants.
- North Vietnam supported the National Liberation Front (NLF) in the South, hoping to reunify the country.
- The United States viewed Vietnam through the lens of containment and the domino theory, escalating involvement.
Case study
The Formation of the National Liberation Front (NLF), 1960
Origins and Aims
- The NLF was formed to overthrow Diem and reunify Vietnam under a nationalist-communist government.
- It presented itself as a broad nationalist coalition, appealing to rural peasants suffering from Diem’s land policies.
- The NLF emphasized land reform, political autonomy and anti-imperialism.
- It operated through political cells embedded in rural communities.
- The organization became the central force challenging South Vietnamese authority.
Support from the North
- The NLF received weapons, training and guidance from Hanoi, strengthening its military capabilities.
- The Ho Chi Minh Trail provided secure supply lines through Laos and Cambodia.
- Northern support helped coordinate guerrilla and conventional operations.
- The NLF used propaganda to build legitimacy and portray itself as the voice of Vietnamese nationalism.
- The group’s strength contributed directly to American escalation after 1964.
Definition
National Liberation Front (NLF)
Coalition of anti-Diem forces commonly called the Viet Cong.
Definition
Domino Theory
US belief that the fall of one country to communism would trigger others to follow.
Nature of the Conflict and International Escalation
- The Vietnam War blended guerrilla warfare, conventional military operations, political struggle and extensive foreign intervention from major Cold War powers.
- The North and the NLF relied on guerrilla tactics, political indoctrination and surprise attacks.
- The United States introduced large-scale ground forces after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964).
- US military superiority produced heavy bombing campaigns such as Operation Rolling Thunder.
- China and the Soviet Union supplied North Vietnam with weapons, training and air defenses.
- The conflict became a global symbol of Cold War confrontation and ideological struggle.
Outcome, Withdrawal and Impact on Vietnam
- The war ended with the withdrawal of the United States, the collapse of South Vietnam and major long-term economic and political changes.
- The Paris Peace Accords (1973) ended direct American involvement but left fighting between North and South ongoing.
- North Vietnamese troops captured Saigon in April 1975, leading to reunification under communist rule.
- The war devastated Vietnam’s infrastructure, farmland and civilian population.
- The new government implemented land reform, reeducation camps and central economic planning.
- Vietnam faced international isolation and economic hardship until policy reforms in the 1980s.
Case study
The Fall of Saigon (April 1975)
Collapse of South Vietnam
- The South Vietnamese army suffered from low morale, corruption and declining US aid.
- North Vietnam launched a massive offensive, capturing major cities rapidly.
- Civilians attempted to flee in chaotic evacuations, symbolized by helicopter rescues from the US Embassy.
- The government of South Vietnam surrendered unconditionally on April 30, 1975.
- The event marked the end of the longest Cold War conflict in Asia.
Political and Economic Consequences
- Vietnam was reunified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam under communist leadership.
- The government established reeducation camps to punish former South Vietnamese officials and soldiers.
- Collectivized agriculture and centralized planning caused food shortages and economic stagnation.
- Vietnam’s relationship with China deteriorated, leading to conflict in 1979.
- The long-term impact included emigration, especially the “boat people” fleeing the new regime.
Case study
Tet Offensive (1968)
Strategy and Execution
- During the Lunar New Year holiday, the NLF and North Vietnamese troops launched coordinated attacks across more than 100 cities.
- The offensive targeted major urban centers, including Saigon and Hue.
- Tet aimed to spark a popular uprising in the South and expose weaknesses in the Saigon government.
- Although militarily costly for the NLF, the attacks achieved major surprise against US forces.
- The scale of the offensive demonstrated North Vietnam’s capacity to coordinate nationwide operations.
Impact on the War
- Tet shocked the American public and undermined confidence in US government statements.
- It revealed that US claims of “progress” were misleading, shifting public opinion against the war.
- President Johnson announced he would not seek reelection in 1968, partly due to Tet’s political fallout.
- US strategy shifted from escalation to Vietnamization, transferring responsibilities to South Vietnam.
- Tet became a turning point showing that a political victory was unlikely despite US military strength.
Common Mistake
- Overemphasizing the US role while neglecting Vietnamese agency and nationalism.
- Ignoring the importance of the NLF and local support networks.
- Treating Tet as a total military victory rather than a psychological turning point.
- Focusing only on American withdrawal without explaining the collapse of South Vietnam.
- Forgetting to analyze long-term economic effects such as food shortages and dependence on Soviet aid.
Exam technique
- Connect internal causes (Diem’s policies, nationalism) with external Cold War pressures.
- Show how the war changed across phases: advisory phase, escalation, Vietnamization, collapse.
- Emphasize ideological motivations on all sides, not just military strategy.Compare the Vietnam War’s outcome to other proxy conflicts in the Cold War.
Self review
- Assess the causes of the Vietnam War between 1956 and 1975.
- Examine the role of foreign intervention in shaping the course of the Vietnam War.
- To what extent did the Vietnam War have long-term economic and political effects on Vietnam?
