US Foreign Policy Notes

Mikhail Gorbachev (1985–1991)

Background and Rise to Power

• Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1985, during a time of economic decline and political stagnation in the USSR.
• The Soviet Union was struggling with a weak economy, poor productivity, high military costs, and low morale among its citizens.
• Gorbachev believed that reform was the only way to save socialism and modernize the Soviet system.
• He was younger and more open-minded than previous Soviet leaders and aimed to renew the legitimacy of the Communist Party through transparency and restructuring.

Domestic Reforms: Perestroika and Glasnost

• Gorbachev launched two major reforms:
  • Perestroika (restructuring): reforming the Soviet economy by introducing limited market mechanisms, encouraging small private businesses, and reducing government control.
  • Glasnost (openness): increasing freedom of speech, transparency in government, and access to information, allowing open criticism of the state.
• These policies aimed to revive the economy and democratize Soviet society, but they also weakened Communist Party control.
• Political reforms followed, such as multi-candidate elections and a more independent parliament.
• Glasnost exposed government failures, corruption, and the truth about past repressions like Stalin’s purges, causing public disillusionment with communism.

Foreign Policy and the End of the Cold War

• Gorbachev’s foreign policy, known as “New Thinking,” aimed to reduce tensions with the West and shift focus from military power to diplomacy and cooperation.
• He signed key arms reduction treaties with the U.S., including the INF Treaty (1987) with Ronald Reagan, marking a turning point in East–West relations.
• Gorbachev ended the Brezhnev Doctrine, allowing Eastern European countries to decide their own political futures, leading to the fall of communist regimes in 1989.
• He withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan (1989), signaling an end to decades of costly interventions.
• These changes helped end the Cold War, but also accelerated the collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991)

• Gorbachev’s reforms unintentionally weakened central authority and encouraged nationalist movements across the USSR.
• Economic problems worsened as old systems broke down faster than new ones could take effect.
• In 1991, a failed coup by hardline Communists tried to overthrow Gorbachev, but it only hastened the Soviet collapse.
• By December 1991, the USSR dissolved, and Boris Yeltsin became president of the new Russian Federation.
• Gorbachev resigned, ending 70 years of communist rule, but his role in ending the Cold War peacefully made him one of the most significant figures of the 20th century.

The U.S. Invasion of Panama (1989)

Background and Causes

• In December 1989, the United States invaded Panama in a military operation called Operation Just Cause.
• The invasion’s main goal was to remove General Manuel Noriega, Panama’s military ruler, who was accused of drug trafficking, corruption, and election fraud.
• Noriega had once been a U.S. ally during the Cold War, helping U.S. intelligence operations in Central America, but he later defied U.S. control and turned against Washington’s interests.
• Tensions rose after U.S. citizens and military personnel were attacked in Panama, giving the U.S. government a reason to act.
• President George H. W. Bush justified the invasion as necessary to protect American lives, defend democracy, and secure the Panama Canal.

The Invasion and Military Actions

• On December 20, 1989, about 27,000 U.S. troops invaded Panama in one of the largest U.S. military operations since Vietnam.
• Fighting was intense, especially in the capital, Panama City, where Noriega’s forces were quickly overwhelmed.
• Noriega sought refuge in the Vatican Embassy, where U.S. forces surrounded him and played loud rock music for days until he surrendered on January 3, 1990.
• The invasion resulted in hundreds of Panamanian deaths, destruction of property, and international criticism for violating Panama’s sovereignty.
• The U.S. installed Guillermo Endara, the winner of the 1989 election that Noriega had annulled, as president.

Impact and Legacy

• The invasion ended Noriega’s dictatorship, and he was later tried and sentenced in the U.S. for drug trafficking and money laundering.
• It marked a turning point in U.S.–Latin American relations, as many countries in the region condemned the invasion as an abuse of U.S. power.
• The operation signaled the return of U.S. unilateralism, showing that the U.S. would act alone if it believed its interests were threatened.
• In Panama, the invasion restored civilian government but also caused lasting economic and social damage, including displacement and loss of life.
• The event reflected a shift in U.S. foreign policy at the end of the Cold War, emphasizing control of strategic regions and the promotion of democracy.