The Articles of Confederation (1781–1789)
- The Articles of Confederation created the first U.S. national government, emphasizing state sovereignty and limiting central authority due to fear of tyranny after colonial rule.
- The federal government had no power to tax, regulate interstate commerce, or enforce laws, relying instead on state contributions—weaknesses that led to financial instability and poor coordination.
- Events like Shays’ Rebellion (1786) exposed the government’s inability to maintain order or respond to crises, convincing many leaders that reform was necessary.
Definition
Shays’ Rebellion (1786–1787)
An armed uprising of poor farmers in Massachusetts, led by Daniel Shays, protesting high taxes, debt, and foreclosures after the American Revolution.
The 1787 Constitutional Convention
- The Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia (May–September 1787) to address these weaknesses, producing a new framework that balanced power between state and national governments.
- The framers incorporated Enlightenment ideas, particularly Montesquieu’s separation of powers and Locke’s natural rights, aiming to prevent tyranny while ensuring effective governance.
Major Compromises and Provisions
- The Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature: the Senate (equal state representation) and the House of Representatives (representation by population).
- The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved persons as three-fifths of a person for both taxation and representation, reflecting the political tensions between northern and southern states.
- The Checks and Balances system divided authority among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, ensuring that no one branch could dominate.
- The Bill of Rights (1791) was later added to protect individual liberties and guarantee limits on federal power, securing ratification support from Anti-Federalists.
Definition
The Great Compromise (1787)
It created a bicameral legislature:
- The House of Representatives based on population (favoring large states).
- The Senate granting equal representation (two senators per state, favoring small states).
Case study
The Three-Fifths Compromise (1787)
Background
- During the U.S. Constitutional Convention (1787), delegates debated how enslaved people would be counted for representation and taxation.
- Southern states, with large enslaved populations, wanted them counted fully to increase their political power in Congress, while Northern states opposed this since enslaved people could not vote.
The Compromise
- The Three-Fifths Compromise determined that each enslaved person would count as three-fifths of a free person for both representation in the House and direct taxation.
- This agreement gave Southern states greater representation in Congress and the Electoral College than their voting populations warranted.
- It was a political trade-off between Northern and Southern delegates to secure the Constitution’s ratification.
Political and Social Implications
- The compromise entrenched slavery in the new political system by rewarding slaveholding states with more influence.
- It widened the North–South divide, setting the stage for later conflicts over slavery and representation.
- Politically, it strengthened the Southern bloc, influencing early U.S. presidential elections and national policy until the Civil War.
Long-Term Impact
- The compromise institutionalized the idea that enslaved people were both property and persons, a contradiction at the heart of American democracy.
- It was finally abolished by the 13th Amendment (1865) after the Civil War ended slavery.
- Historians view it as an example of how early compromises prioritized national unity over moral consistency, delaying but not preventing the slavery crisis.
Evolution of the Political System
- Over time, major changes included the rise of political parties, expansion of suffrage, and judicial review(established by Marbury v. Madison, 1803), which strengthened federal authority and redefined constitutional interpretation.
Case study
The Constitutional Convention of 1787
- Delegates from twelve states met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles but soon decided to create an entirely new constitution.
- James Madison played a leading role, drafting the Virginia Plan, which proposed representation based on population, a model favored by large states.
- Smaller states, fearing domination, proposed the New Jersey Plan, which called for equal representation.
- The Great Compromise, introduced by Roger Sherman, merged both ideas, forming the bicameral Congress that still exists today.
- Disputes over slavery led to the Three-Fifths Compromise and a 20-year limit on banning the transatlantic slave trade.
- The Federalists, including Alexander Hamilton and Madison, supported a strong central government, while Anti-Federalists opposed it until a Bill of Rights was promised.
- The Constitution was ratified in 1788, creating a flexible framework that allowed for amendment and adaptation, enabling the U.S. to endure as a stable republic.
Common Mistake
- Confusing the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution, or failing to clearly explain how the Constitution directly addressed the Articles’ weaknesses.
- Ignoring philosophical influences, such as Enlightenment thinkers, that shaped the U.S. political framework.
- Overlooking compromise: Do not describe the Constitution as unified when it was actually a series of negotiated settlements balancing regional and political interests.
Exam technique
- Identify weaknesses in the Articles and show how the Constitution solved each one.
- Reference Locke, Montesquieu, and Enlightenment principles of liberty, equality, and consent.
- When discussing compromises (e.g., Three-Fifths Compromise), link them to later sectional tensions that contributed to future conflicts like the Civil War.
Self review
- How did the failures of the Articles of Confederation shape the structure and goals of the 1787 Constitution?
- Why were compromise and balance central to the success of the Constitutional Convention?
- In what ways did Enlightenment ideas influence the principles embedded in the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights?
