Causes of Tension: Land, Culture, and Power
- Land Seizure
- European settlers viewed land as private property, while Aboriginal and Māori peoples saw it as communal and sacred.
- Doctrines of Possession
- In Australia, the British declared terra nullius (“land belonging to no one”), ignoring Aboriginal ownership.
- Broken Promises
- In New Zealand, the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) promised Māori protection but was often violated by British settlers seeking farmland.
- Resource Competition
- Expansion of pastoral farming and mining displaced indigenous communities from hunting, fishing, and sacred sites.
- Cultural Superiority
- Settlers believed in the “civilizing mission,” promoting Christianity and Western education while suppressing native languages and traditions.
Definition
Terra Nullius
- Legal doctrine meaning “land belonging to no one.”
Definition
Pastoral Expansion
- Growth of sheep and cattle farming on indigenous lands.
Outbreaks and Nature of Conflict
- Frontier Wars (Australia)
- Dozens of local wars between settlers and Aboriginal nations (1788–1930s); most were guerrilla-style resistance led by figures like Pemulwuy and Yagan.
- Māori Resistance (New Zealand)
- Series of New Zealand Wars (1845–1872) fought over breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi and land confiscations.
- Unequal Technology
- Indigenous groups used traditional weapons against firearms and organized colonial militias.
- Massacres and Retaliation
- Violence escalated e.g., Myall Creek Massacre (1838) in Australia; Waikato Campaign (1863–1864) in New Zealand.
- Government Policy
- Authorities often justified repression as “pacification,” with little recognition of indigenous sovereignty.
Definition
Waikato Campaign
- Major military effort by British and colonial forces to suppress Māori resistance in the 1860s.
Case study
The New Zealand Wars (1845–1872)
Causes and Escalation
- Disputes over land purchases and Māori autonomy following the Treaty of Waitangi.
- The Northern War (1845–46) began when Māori chief Hone Heke protested British control of trade by cutting down the flagpole at Kororāreka.
- Continued unrest in the 1860s due to settler encroachment into the Waikato and Taranaki regions.
- Kingitanga Movement (Māori King Movement): Created to unify Māori under one sovereign and resist land loss.
- British used superior firepower and confiscated vast lands from “rebel” iwi (tribes).
Consequences
- Massive Māori land confiscations under the New Zealand Settlements Act (1863).
- Displacement of entire communities and economic devastation.
- Loss of political power and increased dependence on the colonial government.
- Cultural resilience: many Māori maintained language, religion, and kinship ties despite loss.
- Wars became a foundation for modern Māori activism and treaty rights claims.
Consequences of Tension and Conflict
- Demographic Collapse
- Disease, war, and famine drastically reduced indigenous populations.
- Land Alienation
- By 1900, most indigenous land was under European control; Aboriginal land rights ignored until the 20th century.
- Cultural Suppression
- Mission schools and government policies banned indigenous languages and customs.
- Racial Hierarchies
- Europeans dominated politics and economy; indigenous peoples marginalized and often placed on missions or reserves.
- National Identity
- Despite discrimination, indigenous resistance shaped modern national narratives in both countries (e.g., ANZAC-era patriotism contrasted with native exclusion).
Definition
Land Alienation
- Loss of indigenous land to settlers through confiscation or sale.
Definition
Assimilation
- Policy encouraging indigenous peoples to adopt European culture and abandon traditional ways.
Common Mistake
- Assuming conflict was one-sided: Indigenous peoples fought strategically and effectively despite fewer resources.
- Ignoring long-term consequences: Wars led to systemic land loss and legal inequality lasting into the 20th century.
- Overgeneralizing: Causes of conflict varied i.e. economic in Australia, treaty-based in New Zealand.
Exam technique
- Compare and Contrast: Frame essays around Australia (no treaty) vs. New Zealand (broken treaty).
- Use Specific Examples: Include Myall Creek (1838) and Waikato Campaign (1863–64) to anchor your arguments.
- Show Continuity: Link resistance movements to later activism and land rights claims in the 20th century.
Theory of Knowledge
- Who defines justice in a colonial world?
- British settlers viewed expansion as progress; for indigenous peoples, it meant invasion and loss, revealing how morality can depend on perspective and power.
Self review
- Examine the causes of conflict between settlers and indigenous peoples in 19th-century Australia and New Zealand.
- Assess the consequences of land disputes and wars on indigenous societies in Oceania.
- To what extent did British policies contribute to tensions with indigenous populations?
