Growth of Cities
- Urbanization increased as populations grew and more people moved to towns and cities for trade, crafts, and work.
- Cities became centers of commerce, education, and Enlightenment debate.
- New consumer markets grew in cities, with rising demand for goods like books, newspapers, and luxury items.
- Overcrowding, poor sanitation, and inequality also increased, showing that urban growth had both positive and negative effects.
Agricultural Change
- The Agricultural Revolution improved farming methods and productivity during the 17th and 18th centuries.
- Crop rotation (e.g., Norfolk four-course system) replaced old methods, helping restore soil fertility and increase yields.
- The spread of new crops like the potato and maize provided more reliable food sources.
- Enclosure movement in England privatized common lands, increasing efficiency but also displacing many small farmers.
- Agricultural surplus allowed populations to rise, fueling industrial and urban growth later in the 18th century.
Social Change
- A growing middle class (bourgeoisie) emerged, benefiting from trade, commerce, and professional jobs.
- Education and literacy rates rose, especially in cities, which supported the spread of Enlightenment thinking.
- The gap between rich and poor widened, as nobles maintained privileges while peasants often faced higher taxes and pressures from enclosure.
- The idea of “improvement” (progress through reason and science) shaped both farming and social reforms.
Common Mistake
- Students sometimes treat the Agricultural Revolution as a sudden event. It was gradual, varying by region.
- Some assume urban growth was universally positive, ignoring overcrowding, disease, and hardship for poorer city dwellers.
Exam technique
- Link economic change to social consequences e.g., enclosure → displaced peasants → migration to cities.
Self review
- To what extent did agricultural change transform European society in the 18th century?
- Examine the social impact of urban growth in the Enlightenment era.
- How far did economic change during the Enlightenment contribute to the rise of new social groups?
