The Republic and the Failure of Political Unity
- The Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, ending imperial rule and leading to the establishment of the Republic of China (1912) under Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen).
- Sun’s political philosophy, the Three Principles of the People—nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood sought to modernize China and free it from imperial domination.
- However, Sun lacked military support and ceded the presidency to Yuan Shikai, a powerful general, in hopes of securing national unity.
- Yuan Shikai soon abandoned republicanism, attempting to restore monarchy in 1915 and crown himself emperor, which alienated reformers and regional leaders.
- After Yuan’s death in 1916, China fragmented into regions ruled by warlords, each maintaining private armies and taxing local populations.
- This Warlord Era (1916–1928) fostered instability but also intensified nationalist sentiment, as intellectuals called for modernization and unity.
Definition
Three Principles of the People
- Sun Yixian’s political doctrine emphasizing nationalism, democracy, and economic welfare.
Definition
Warlordism
System of regional military rule that emerged after Yuan Shikai’s death, weakening central authority.
Yuan Shikai and the Crisis of Republicanism
Political Legacy
- Yuan’s reliance on military power over democratic institutions discredited the new republic.
- His dissolution of the National Assembly (1914) and self-coronation attempt (1915–1916) revealed the fragility of republican ideals.
- Opposition from provincial governors, the army, and foreign powers forced Yuan to abandon the imperial title.
- His death in 1916 left a power vacuum that fragmented China and eroded trust in centralized government.
Impact on National Identity
- The failure of early republican leadership convinced many Chinese that political modernization required moral renewal and intellectual transformation.
- Disillusionment with warlord rule encouraged new movements seeking to redefine China’s identity through culture, education, and ideology.
Foreign Pressure and National Humiliation (1915–1919)
- During World War I, Japan exploited China’s weakness, issuing the Twenty-One Demands (1915), which sought to expand Japanese influence over Manchuria, Shandong, and China’s economy.
- Yuan Shikai’s acceptance of most demands under Japanese pressure triggered widespread anti-Japanese protestsand revived nationalism.
- These humiliations, compounded by China’s diplomatic failures at the Treaty of Versailles (1919), deepened resentment toward foreign imperialism.
- The transfer of German concessions in Shandong to Japan instead of returning them to China symbolized the betrayal of national sovereignty.
- The Treaty of Versailles became a turning point: many Chinese concluded that Western democracy and international law had failed China.
Definition
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
Peace treaty ending World War I; its decision to grant Shandong to Japan sparked outrage across China.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) and its Impact on Chinese Nationalism
- China entered World War I on the side of the Allies (1917), sending over 140,000 Chinese laborers to Europe, hoping to gain international respect and recover Shandong Province, previously controlled by Germany.
