Rise of National Identity in China Notes

The Republic and the Failure of Political Unity

1. The Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, ending imperial rule and leading to the establishment of the Republic of China (1912) under Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen).
2. Sun’s political philosophy, the Three Principles of the People—nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood sought to modernize China and free it from imperial domination.
3. However, Sun lacked military support and ceded the presidency to Yuan Shikai, a powerful general, in hopes of securing national unity.
4. Yuan Shikai soon abandoned republicanism, attempting to restore monarchy in 1915 and crown himself emperor, which alienated reformers and regional leaders.
5. After Yuan’s death in 1916, China fragmented into regions ruled by warlords, each maintaining private armies and taxing local populations.
6. This Warlord Era (1916–1928) fostered instability but also intensified nationalist sentiment, as intellectuals called for modernization and unity.

Foreign Pressure and National Humiliation (1915–1919)

1. During World War I, Japan exploited China’s weakness, issuing the Twenty-One Demands (1915), which sought to expand Japanese influence over Manchuria, Shandong, and China’s economy.
2. Yuan Shikai’s acceptance of most demands under Japanese pressure triggered widespread anti-Japanese protestsand revived nationalism.
3. These humiliations, compounded by China’s diplomatic failures at the Treaty of Versailles (1919), deepened resentment toward foreign imperialism.
4. The transfer of German concessions in Shandong to Japan instead of returning them to China symbolized the betrayal of national sovereignty.
5. The Treaty of Versailles became a turning point: many Chinese concluded that Western democracy and international law had failed China.

The Treaty of Versailles (1919) and its Impact on Chinese Nationalism

1. China entered World War I on the side of the Allies (1917), sending over 140,000 Chinese laborers to Europe, hoping to gain international respect and recover Shandong Province, previously controlled by Germany.
2. Despite these contributions, the Treaty of Versailles (1919) granted Germany’s Shandong concessions to Japan, which had occupied the area during the war.
3. China’s delegation, led by Lu Zhengxiang, demanded the return of sovereignty, citing President Woodrow Wilson’s “Fourteen Points” on self-determination.
4. Western powers prioritized Japanese interests, revealing the hypocrisy of “Wilsonian ideals” and the weakness of China’s diplomatic standing.
5. The decision was widely viewed as a betrayal of Chinese hopes, sparking outrage and shattering confidence in Western liberal democracy.

Domestic Reaction and the Rise of Modern Nationalism

1. The news of the treaty reached Beijing on May 4, 1919, prompting student-led protests that grew into the May Fourth Movement, a mass nationalist uprising.
2. Demonstrations began at Peking University and quickly spread to major cities, uniting students, merchants, and workers in the first modern nationalist coalition.
3. Protesters denounced imperialism, Japanese aggression, and the Beiyang government for failing to defend national interests.
4. The movement fostered the New Culture Movement’s ideals (science, democracy, and rejection of Confucian tradition) as pathways to national renewal.
5. China’s eventual refusal to sign the Treaty of Versailles symbolized a new spirit of resistance and marked the birth of modern Chinese nationalism.

Effects of Warlordism on Chinese Nationalism

1. The Warlord Era (1916–1928) created widespread hardship i.e. regional taxes, conscription, and banditry but also spurred demands for unity.
2. Fragmentation exposed China’s vulnerability to foreign exploitation, reinforcing nationalist anger toward imperialism.
3. Intellectuals and students saw warlordism as proof that China’s crisis was not only political but cultural and moral.
4. The need to end internal division and resist foreign control motivated the formation of new revolutionary groups, including the Guomindang (GMD) and CCP.
5. The Northern Expedition (1926–1928), led by Chiang Kai-shek, finally ended warlord dominance, but the roots of authoritarian rule remained.