Ethnic and Religious Conflicts after 1947
- Independence in August 1947 was immediately followed by mass violence between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs during the Partition.
- Nearly 12 to 15 million people were displaced, and over one million were killed in riots and massacres.
- The new Indian government faced the enormous task of rehabilitating refugees, restoring order, and asserting unity in a country divided by religion and region.
- Religious tensions persisted in border states such as Punjab, Bengal, and Kashmir, as well as in regions with large minority populations.
- Ethnic and linguistic diversity created additional challenges in defining a national identity under a secular constitution.
Definition
Secularism
- The principle of separating religion from state affairs, ensuring equal treatment of all faiths.
Definition
Communal Violence
- Hostility or conflict between different religious or ethnic communities, often leading to riots.
Case study
The Integration of Princely States
Political Integration
- At independence, over 560 princely states existed, each ruled by local monarchs with semi-autonomous power under British protection.
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, India’s first Home Minister, led the campaign to integrate these states into the Indian Union.
- Most rulers acceded to India through Instruments of Accession, giving control of defense, foreign affairs, and communications to the central government.
- Persuasion, negotiation, and occasional military force were used to achieve unity.
- The integration process transformed India from a patchwork of kingdoms into a single federal nation.
Resistance and Resolution
- A few states resisted integration, notably Hyderabad, Junagadh, and Kashmir.
- Hyderabad’s Nizam sought independence, but Indian forces launched Operation Polo (1948), annexing the state.
- Junagadh’s Muslim ruler attempted to join Pakistan despite a Hindu majority, leading to Indian intervention.
- The Kashmir conflict erupted when its Hindu ruler acceded to India despite a Muslim-majority population, sparking war with Pakistan.
- Patel’s decisive actions earned him the title “Iron Man of India”, symbolizing strong central authority in the new nation.
The Kashmir Conflict and Nehru’s Domestic Policies
- Kashmir became the most contentious issue of post-independence India. The region’s accession to India in October 1947 led to the First Indo-Pakistani War (1947–1949).
- The United Nations intervened, establishing a ceasefire line that left two-thirds of Kashmir under Indian control and one-third under Pakistani control.
- The conflict entrenched mistrust between India and Pakistan, shaping their foreign and defense policies.
- Domestically, Jawaharlal Nehru’s government faced the challenge of building a stable democracy, reforming the economy, and maintaining unity amid diversity.
- Nehru’s policies combined socialist planning, secularism, and non-alignment in foreign affairs.
Definition
Five-Year Plans
- Economic programs aimed at industrial and agricultural development through state-led planning.
Definition
Non-Alignment
A foreign policy of neutrality during the Cold War, avoiding formal alliances with either the United States or the Soviet Union.
Case study
Nehru’s Domestic Policies (1947–1964)
Economic and Social Development
- Nehru promoted state-led industrialization through the establishment of heavy industries, dams, and infrastructure projects such as the Bhakra Nangal Dam.
- Land reform laws aimed to reduce inequality and abolish the zamindari (landlord) system, though enforcement was inconsistent.
- The First Five-Year Plan (1951–1956) focused on agriculture, while the Second Plan (1956–1961) emphasized industrialization under P. C. Mahalanobis’s model.
- Nehru expanded access to education and science, founding the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and promoting literacy.
- While industrial output increased, rural poverty and unemployment remained persistent problems.
Political and Institutional Consolidation
- Nehru oversaw the creation of a secular and democratic constitution (1950) guaranteeing equality and fundamental rights.
- The States Reorganization Act (1956) redrew internal boundaries along linguistic lines, balancing regional identities with national unity.
- India held regular free elections, with the Congress Party maintaining dominance but allowing opposition voices.
- Nehru’s vision of democratic socialism fostered stability and modernization, distinguishing India from authoritarian postcolonial states.
- However, critics argued that his policies favored urban elites and neglected agricultural reform and administrative efficiency.
Common Mistake
- Treating the integration of princely states and Kashmir as separate events instead of part of a larger nation-building process.
- Overemphasizing Nehru’s successes without acknowledging the limitations of his economic and social reforms.
Exam technique
- Link domestic policy to the wider goal of national consolidation after Partition.
- Use key evidence such as the number of princely states, major projects, and specific reforms to demonstrate factual knowledge.
- In “assess” questions, balance achievements in democracy and industry with ongoing regional, religious, and economic challenges.
Theory of Knowledge
- How do newly independent nations balance unity and diversity when building a national identity?
- Can economic modernization succeed without addressing social inequality?
- To what extent is democracy dependent on strong leadership in postcolonial contexts?
Self review
- Assess the challenges faced by India in integrating the princely states and maintaining religious unity after 1947.
- Examine the causes and consequences of the Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan from 1947 to 1949.
- To what extent were Jawaharlal Nehru’s domestic policies (1947–1964) successful in achieving economic growth and national unity?
