The Aftermath of the First World War and the Amritsar Massacre (1919)
- India contributed over one million soldiers to the First World War and expected political rewards in return.
- Instead, Britain imposed the Rowlatt Acts (1919), extending wartime emergency powers such as arrest without trial.
- The Acts caused outrage among Indians who had supported the war effort in good faith.
- Peaceful protests led by Gandhi and local leaders were met with violence in Amritsar, Punjab.
- The Amritsar Massacre (13 April 1919) marked a turning point, convincing many that British rule could not be reformed but had to be replaced.
Definition
The Rowlatt Acts (1919)
Oppressive British laws in India that allowed the colonial government to imprison any person suspected of sedition or "terrorist activities" for up to two years without a trial or judicial review.
Definition
Amritsar Massacre
British troops opened fire on a large crowd of unarmed Indians
Case study
Causes and Events
- Protests against the Rowlatt Acts gathered in Amritsar, where thousands of unarmed civilians met in Jallianwala Bagh.
- Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on the crowd without warning.
- The firing lasted about ten minutes, killing nearly 400 people (official estimate) and injuring over 1,000.
- Dyer claimed his actions were meant to “produce a moral effect” and prevent rebellion.
Consequences and Significance
- The massacre destroyed any remaining Indian trust in British promises of fairness.
- The Hunter Commission condemned Dyer’s actions, but many Britons supported him, deepening Indian resentment.
- Gandhi suspended cooperation with the British and began organizing mass non-violent resistance.
- The event radicalized Indian politics, transforming the nationalist movement from elite-led petitions to mass mobilization.
The Government of India Act (1919) and the Simon Commission (1928)
- The Government of India Act (1919) introduced limited reforms known as “dyarchy.”
- Indian ministers were given control of education, health, and local government, but the British retained power over defense, finance, and law and order.
- Many nationalists considered the Act a disappointment because it preserved British dominance.
- The Simon Commission (1928) was set up by the British to review the Act, but it had no Indian members, provoking nationwide protests.
- Slogans such as “Simon Go Back” symbolized Indian anger and unity across communities.
Definition
Dyarchy
- A system dividing provincial subjects between elected Indian ministers and appointed British officials.
Definition
Simon Commission
- A British committee sent to India to recommend political reforms but excluded all Indian representation.
Case study
The Simon Commission (1928)
Opposition and Reaction
- Both the INC and the Muslim League boycotted the Commission in protest against its exclusion of Indians.
- Mass demonstrations took place in every major city, uniting diverse political groups temporarily.
- Prominent nationalist Lala Lajpat Rai died after being beaten by police during protests in Lahore.
- The event exposed Britain’s unwillingness to trust Indians with meaningful self-government.
Outcomes and Legacy
- The failure of the Simon Commission encouraged Indian leaders to draft their own constitutional proposals.
- The Nehru Report (1928), written in response, demanded dominion status and a bill of rights.
- Jinnah rejected the report for failing to protect Muslim interests, widening Hindu-Muslim divisions.
- The Commission’s recommendations were later incorporated into the Government of India Act (1935) but in a heavily modified form.
The Round Table Conferences (1930–1932) and the Government of India Act (1935)
- Britain held three Round Table Conferences (1930–1932) in London to discuss constitutional reform with Indian representatives.
- The first session excluded the INC because Gandhi and other leaders were imprisoned for the Salt March.
- Gandhi attended the second session (1931) after the Gandhi–Irwin Pact, but talks failed due to disputes over minority representation and the future of princely states.
- The third session (1932) was dominated by loyalists and princes, producing few concrete results.
- Nevertheless, these conferences laid the groundwork for the Government of India Act (1935).
Definition
Round Table Conferences
- Meetings between British officials and Indian leaders to discuss constitutional reforms for India.
Definition
Communal Award (1932)
- British plan granting separate electorates to minority groups, which Gandhi opposed through a fast unto death.
Case study
The Government of India Act (1935)
Provisions of the Act
- The Act introduced provincial autonomy, allowing Indian ministers full control over local governments.
- It proposed a federal system combining British provinces and princely states, though this was never implemented.
- It expanded the electorate from about 5 million to 35 million people, giving more Indians the vote.
- Despite these reforms, the British retained control over defense, foreign affairs, and finance.
Indian Response
- The INC accepted the 1937 provincial elections under the Act and won majorities in several provinces.
- Congress ministries introduced reforms in education, agriculture, and social welfare, showing the potential for self-rule.
- The Muslim League performed poorly, highlighting growing political polarization.
- Many nationalists still viewed the Act as a half-measure designed to delay independence rather than grant it.
Common Mistake
- Treating these developments as isolated events rather than parts of a continuous process of reform and resistance.
- Overlooking how British attempts at gradual reform unintentionally strengthened nationalist unity.
Exam technique
- When explaining causes and effects, link reforms directly to rising nationalist expectations and British reluctance to share power.
- Use chronological transitions (e.g., “Following the Rowlatt Acts…” or “As a result of the Simon Commission…”).
- Include both Indian and British perspectives to demonstrate analytical depth.
Theory of Knowledge
- How can political “reform” by a colonial power both encourage and undermine nationalist movements?
- Does representation without genuine power count as self-government?
Self review
- Assess the impact of British political reforms between 1919 and 1935 on the growth of Indian nationalism.
- To what extent did the Simon Commission and the Round Table Conferences contribute to Indian demands for independence?
- Examine the significance of the Amritsar Massacre in changing Indian attitudes toward British rule.
