Kennedy’s New Frontier (1961–1963)
- President John F. Kennedy launched the New Frontier, a set of programs meant to inspire social reform, economic growth, and scientific advancement.
- His administration focused on education, civil rights, and the space race as symbols of national progress.
- Kennedy promoted Keynesian economics, meaning government spending could stimulate demand and reduce unemployment.
- He called for increased aid to education, medical care for the elderly, and housing assistance, but many proposals were blocked by Congress.
- His 1961 creation of the Peace Corps encouraged young Americans to serve abroad, promoting global goodwill and U.S. influence.
- The space program, led by NASA, became a central part of the New Frontier after Kennedy’s 1961 goal to land a man on the moon by 1970.
Definition
Keynesian Economics
- The belief that active government spending can boost economic activity and reduce unemployment.
Case study
Civil Rights in the Kennedy Era (1961–1963)
- Kennedy initially acted cautiously on civil rights to avoid alienating southern Democrats.
- Events like the Freedom Rides (1961) and Birmingham protests (1963) forced him to take a stronger stand.
- He proposed the Civil Rights Act (1963) to end segregation in public places and protect voting rights.
- The bill was still pending in Congress when Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963.
- His leadership marked a turning point from cautious rhetoric to active federal intervention in civil rights.
Johnson’s Great Society (1964–1968)
- After Kennedy’s assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson used his political skill to pass much of the New Frontier agenda and expand it under his Great Society.
- Johnson’s goal was to build a nation that ended poverty and racial injustice while providing opportunity for all citizens.
- His 1964 War on Poverty included programs like Head Start for education, Job Corps for employment training, and Community Action Programs for local reform.
- The Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965) outlawed segregation and ensured fair access to voting.
- Johnson also launched Medicare (healthcare for the elderly) and Medicaid (healthcare for the poor), expanding the welfare state.
Definition
Bipartisanship
- Cooperation and agreement between opposing political parties to achieve policy goals.
Case study
The War on Poverty (1964–1968)
- Johnson’s War on Poverty targeted unemployment and poor living standards, especially in inner cities and rural areas.
- Federal agencies launched new community programs that gave poor Americans more control over local initiatives.
- Poverty rates dropped from about 22% in 1960 to 12% in 1970, showing measurable success.
- Critics argued that the programs created dependency on federal aid and lacked long-term sustainability.
- Despite mixed results, the War on Poverty reshaped the relationship between citizens and the federal government.
| Aspect | Kennedy and the New Frontier | Johnson and the Great Society |
|---|---|---|
| Expansion of Federal Role | Began expanding government involvement in education, civil rights, and the space program. | Greatly expanded federal programs in welfare, healthcare (Medicare, Medicaid), and civil rights enforcement. |
| Leadership Style | Focused on idealism and inspiration, appealing to youth and national pride. | Known for political skill and persuasion, using Congress to pass large-scale reform. |
| Impact of the Cold War | The Cold War limited resources and kept attention on space and defense rather than full domestic reform. | The Vietnam War consumed federal funds and weakened support for social programs. |
| Social Tensions | Faced early stages of the Civil Rights Movement and growing pressure for racial equality. | Dealt with inflation, urban unrest, and large-scale anti-war protests by 1968. |
| Public Response | Admired for vision and energy, but many reforms were unfinished when he was assassinated. | Initially praised for progress, but later criticized as liberal reform lost public support. |
| Long-Term Legacy | Inspired future generations to believe in government-led progress. | Created lasting institutions like Medicare, Medicaid, and Civil Rights Acts that shaped modern U.S. society. |
Definition
Polarization
- Deep division in public opinion or politics that reduces compromise.
Exam technique
- Show how Johnson built on Kennedy’s unfinished agenda; treat their policies as a continuum, not opposites.
- Evaluate success vs. limitation: Congress resistance under Kennedy, Vietnam distraction under Johnson.
- Include civil rights, economic policy, and welfare reform for full coverage.
- Use both moral appeal (Kennedy) and legislative power (Johnson) as contrasts in leadership.
Common Mistake
- Writing about foreign policy instead of focusing on domestic programs.
- Treating Kennedy’s and Johnson’s reforms separately rather than showing continuity of liberal reform.
- Ignoring how Vietnam weakened support for social programs and shifted priorities by the late 1960s.
Self review
- To what extent did Kennedy’s New Frontier succeed in achieving social and economic reform?
- Assess the significance of Johnson’s Great Society in expanding the role of the federal government.
- Examine how far Cold War pressures limited domestic progress in the United States between 1961 and 1968.
