India - Origins and Rise of Independence Movements Notes

Key Questions

1. What was the role of nationalism and political ideology in the rise of the Indian independence movement?
2. What was the role of social and economic factors in the rise of the Indian independence movement?
3. What was the impact of the First World War in the rise of the Indian independence movement?
4. What were the aims of the Home Rule Leagues and what was the response of the British to growing demands for Home Rule?

What was the Role of Nationalism and Political Ideology in the Indian Independence Movement?

1. Growth of Indian National Consciousness

1. The origins of Indian nationalism can be traced to the late 19th century under British colonial rule.
2. Educated Indians began to recognise the exploitative nature of imperialism and called for greater self-government.
3. The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, became the principal vehicle for expressing nationalist demands.
4. Initially, Congress leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee were moderate nationalists who sought constitutional reforms, Indian representation, and equal treatment within the British Empire.
5. Over time, frustration with the slow pace of reform and the racism of British officials led to the emergence of a more assertive nationalism that demanded swaraj (self-rule) rather than mere participation in government.

2. Economic Nationalism and Critique of Colonial Exploitation

1. A major strand of nationalist ideology developed from economic grievances.
2. Thinkers like Dadabhai Naoroji articulated the “Drain of Wealth” theory, arguing that Britain’s policies extracted India’s economic surplus through taxation, trade, and administration.
3. Nationalists saw the deindustrialisation of India and the decline of indigenous industries as direct results of British economic domination.
4. This critique fostered a sense of economic nationalism, promoting Swadeshi (self-reliance) and the boycott of British goods, especially during the Bengal Partition (1905).
5. The Swadeshi movement not only represented an economic boycott but also a cultural assertion of Indian pride and indigenous production.

3. Cultural and Religious Nationalism

1. The rise of cultural nationalism was central to uniting India’s diverse population.
2. Reformers and leaders sought to revive Indian traditions, languages, and spiritual values as a counter to colonial narratives of Western superiority.
3. Movements such as the Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Brahmo Samaj promoted Hindu reform and national pride.
4. Cultural figures like Rabindranath Tagore and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee used literature and art to express patriotic sentiment and spiritual unity.
5. The song “Vande Mataram” became a symbol of the nationalist movement.
6. However, religious nationalism also contributed to communal divisions, as Hindu and Muslim political identities began to diverge, leading eventually to the Two-Nation Theory and the demand for Pakistan.

4. Rise of Radical Nationalism and Revolutionary Ideology

1. By the early 20th century, radical nationalists emerged who rejected the moderate constitutional approach.
2. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, known as the Lal-Bal-Pal trio, advocated direct action, boycotts, and Swadeshi as weapons against British rule.
3. Tilak famously declared that “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it.”
4. Radical nationalism drew inspiration from European revolutionary movements, combining national pride with calls for mass mobilisation.
5. Underground revolutionary groups such as the Anushilan Samiti and Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) used armed struggle and political assassination to strike at colonial authority.
6. Although limited in scope, these movements helped cultivate a spirit of sacrifice and defiance, strengthening the broader nationalist cause.

5. Gandhi and the Ideology of Non-Violent Nationalism

1. The entry of Mahatma Gandhi into Indian politics after 1915 transformed the nature of nationalism.
2. Gandhi introduced a moral and spiritual dimension to the struggle through his principles of ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha (truth-force).
3. He turned nationalism into a mass movement, mobilising millions across class, caste, and religious lines.
4. Campaigns such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), the Salt March (1930), and the Quit India Movement (1942) united Indians under a shared ideology of peaceful resistance.
5. Gandhi’s nationalism emphasised self-discipline, self-reliance, and rural upliftment, viewing independence not only as political freedom but as moral regeneration.
6. His ideology also sought to overcome social divisions through communal harmony, abolition of untouchability, and empowerment of women.

6. Socialist and Leftist Ideologies

1. By the 1930s, a new generation of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose began advocating socialist ideas.
2. They saw political independence as incomplete without economic and social justice.
3. Nehru was influenced by Marxism and Fabian socialism, envisioning a planned economy and industrial modernisation after independence.
4. The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) emerged within the Indian National Congress to push for workers’ rights, agrarian reform, and state control of key industries.
5. Bose, on the other hand, believed in achieving independence through militant struggle and alliance with anti-British powers, leading to his leadership of the Indian National Army (INA).
6. Although their approaches differed, both Nehru and Bose shared a left-leaning, secular, and anti-imperialist ideology that expanded the meaning of Indian nationalism beyond mere political sovereignty.

7. Communalism and the Two-Nation Theory

1. As independence approached, the ideological unity of the nationalist movement began to fracture along religious lines.
2. The All-India Muslim League, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, argued that Muslims were a distinct political community with their own religious, cultural, and historical identity.
3. The Two-Nation Theory posited that Hindus and Muslims could not coexist within one state, leading to the demand for Pakistan.
4. Meanwhile, the Congress Party continued to uphold secular nationalism, insisting that India’s strength lay in its pluralism and diversity.
5. The ideological clash between religious and secular nationalism culminated in the Partition of 1947, resulting in immense violence and displacement.
6. Nonetheless, the Congress leadership under Nehru reaffirmed the vision of a secular, democratic India, guided by socialist principles and constitutional equality.

8. Nationalism as the Unifying Force

1. Despite ideological diversity, nationalism remained the unifying thread that brought together people from different regions, castes, and religions.
2. It transformed from an elite, urban movement into a mass struggle involving peasants, workers, students, and women.
3. The blending of political, economic, cultural, and religious ideologies gave Indian nationalism a unique character, inclusive yet contested, modern yet rooted in tradition.
4. This ideological richness enabled the movement to adapt to different historical phases, from moderate petitioning to mass mobilisation, civil disobedience, and eventually, constitutional democracy.

What was the role of social and economic factors in the Indian independence movement?

1. Economic Exploitation under British Rule

1. The British colonial system fundamentally reshaped India’s economy to serve imperial interests.
2. Policies such as deindustrialisation, heavy taxation, and free trade turned India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for British goods.
3. The traditional handloom and textile industries collapsed due to cheap British imports, leading to mass unemployment and urban decline.
4. Indian thinkers such as Dadabhai Naoroji exposed these injustices through his “Drain of Wealth” theory, arguing that Britain extracted vast economic resources from India without adequate return.
5. The economic grievances of peasants, artisans, and the emerging middle class became a unifying factor in the demand for economic self-reliance and national control over resources.

2. Agrarian Distress and Peasant Unrest

1. The vast majority of Indians were peasants who suffered under exploitative systems such as the zamindari and ryotwari land settlements.
2. High land taxes, debt, and frequent famines led to deep agrarian poverty.
3. Famines in 1876–78, 1899–1900, and 1943 exposed the callousness of British economic policy, as grain continued to be exported while millions starved.
4. Peasant movements such as the Indigo Revolt (1859–60), the Deccan Riots (1875), and the Tebhaga Movement (1946–47) reflected growing resistance to colonial exploitation.
5. Later, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi linked these struggles to the wider independence movement, emphasising village self-sufficiency and rural reform as central to Indian freedom.
6. Gandhi’s campaigns, including the Champaran (1917) and Kheda (1918) satyagrahas, directly addressed agrarian grievances, merging local struggles with nationalist goals.

3. Rise of the Indian Middle Class and Economic Awareness

1. The emergence of an educated Indian middle class, a product of British education, played a crucial role in shaping nationalist ideology.
2. Educated Indians, many employed in the colonial bureaucracy or professions, became aware of the economic injustices of British rule.
3. They began demanding economic and political representation, forming organisations such as the Indian National Congress (1885).
4. This new class articulated economic nationalism, promoting Swadeshi industries, Indian enterprise, and protective tariffs.
5. Newspapers, pamphlets, and public meetings spread economic arguments against colonial exploitation, transforming grievances into organised political action.

4. Industrialisation and the Swadeshi Movement

1. The Partition of Bengal (1905) triggered the Swadeshi Movement, a major economic and nationalist campaign.
2. Indians were urged to boycott British goods and promote indigenous industries, symbolising economic independence as national pride.
3. The movement led to the growth of Indian-owned enterprises in textiles, steel, and banking, such as the Tata Group, which became icons of Indian self-reliance.
4. Economic nationalism was intertwined with cultural identity, as Swadeshi also promoted traditional crafts, handlooms, and local production.
5. This marked a shift from passive protest to active economic resistance, linking the struggle for independence to economic empowerment.

5. Social Reform and Modernisation

1. Alongside economic grievances, social reform movements played a vital role in shaping nationalist consciousness.
2. Reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule campaigned against caste discrimination, child marriage, sati, and the oppression of women.
3. These movements fostered a sense of moral renewal and social unity, essential for building a modern nation.
4. The promotion of education, especially for women and lower castes, created a new generation of politically aware citizens.
5. The idea that social reform and national freedom were interconnected became central to the ideologies of leaders like Gandhi, who viewed independence as both political liberation and social transformation.

6. Caste and Class Divisions

1. The deeply entrenched caste system and economic inequalities posed challenges to national unity.
2. However, nationalist leaders attempted to bridge these divides. Gandhi championed the rights of the “Harijans” (untouchables), while B. R. Ambedkar demanded legal and social equality for the oppressed castes.
3. Peasant and worker movements in the 1930s, often inspired by socialist ideas, sought to address class exploitation.
4. The Indian National Congress Socialist Party (CSP), founded in 1934, promoted land reform, workers’ rights, and redistribution of wealth, tying the independence movement to social justice.
5. Despite tensions between different social and economic interests, the broader nationalist struggle provided a common platform for these groups.

7. Impact of Economic Depression and World Wars

1. The Great Depression (1929) severely affected Indian agriculture and trade, increasing unemployment and poverty.
2. The resulting hardship intensified anti-colonial sentiment and demands for economic self-sufficiency.
3. During World War I and II, Britain extracted massive economic resources and manpower from India, but post-war crises—inflation, food shortages, and unemployment—fueled discontent.
4. The economic sacrifices made by Indians, coupled with Britain’s failure to offer meaningful reforms, reinforced the idea that independence was essential for national prosperity.

8. Integration of Social and Economic Demands in the Freedom Struggle

1. The Congress leadership, especially under Gandhi and Nehru, integrated social and economic issues into their vision of freedom.
2. Gandhi’s focus on village industries, khadi (hand-spun cloth), and rural self-reliance linked economic independence to moral and social renewal.
3. Nehru, influenced by socialist and Marxist thought, emphasised industrialisation, planned development, and equitable distribution as post-independence goals.
4. The nationalist movement thus evolved to include not just political freedom, but the creation of a just and equitable society free from poverty, illiteracy, and exploitation.

What was the impact of the First World War on the Indian Independence Movement?