India - Origins and Rise of Independence Movements Notes

Key Questions

1. What was the role of nationalism and political ideology in the rise of the Indian independence movement?
2. What was the role of social and economic factors in the rise of the Indian independence movement?
3. What was the impact of the First World War in the rise of the Indian independence movement?
4. What were the aims of the Home Rule Leagues and what was the response of the British to growing demands for Home Rule?

What was the Role of Nationalism and Political Ideology in the Indian Independence Movement?

1. Growth of Indian National Consciousness

1. The origins of Indian nationalism can be traced to the late 19th century under British colonial rule.
2. Educated Indians began to recognise the exploitative nature of imperialism and called for greater self-government.
3. The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, became the principal vehicle for expressing nationalist demands.
4. Initially, Congress leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee were moderate nationalists who sought constitutional reforms, Indian representation, and equal treatment within the British Empire.
5. Over time, frustration with the slow pace of reform and the racism of British officials led to the emergence of a more assertive nationalism that demanded swaraj (self-rule) rather than mere participation in government.

2. Economic Nationalism and Critique of Colonial Exploitation

1. A major strand of nationalist ideology developed from economic grievances.
2. Thinkers like Dadabhai Naoroji articulated the “Drain of Wealth” theory, arguing that Britain’s policies extracted India’s economic surplus through taxation, trade, and administration.
3. Nationalists saw the deindustrialisation of India and the decline of indigenous industries as direct results of British economic domination.
4. This critique fostered a sense of economic nationalism, promoting Swadeshi (self-reliance) and the boycott of British goods, especially during the Bengal Partition (1905).
5. The Swadeshi movement not only represented an economic boycott but also a cultural assertion of Indian pride and indigenous production.

3. Cultural and Religious Nationalism

1. The rise of cultural nationalism was central to uniting India’s diverse population.
2. Reformers and leaders sought to revive Indian traditions, languages, and spiritual values as a counter to colonial narratives of Western superiority.
3. Movements such as the Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and Brahmo Samaj promoted Hindu reform and national pride.
4. Cultural figures like Rabindranath Tagore and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee used literature and art to express patriotic sentiment and spiritual unity.
5. The song “Vande Mataram” became a symbol of the nationalist movement.
6. However, religious nationalism also contributed to communal divisions, as Hindu and Muslim political identities began to diverge, leading eventually to the Two-Nation Theory and the demand for Pakistan.

4. Rise of Radical Nationalism and Revolutionary Ideology

1. By the early 20th century, radical nationalists emerged who rejected the moderate constitutional approach.
2. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai, known as the Lal-Bal-Pal trio, advocated direct action, boycotts, and Swadeshi as weapons against British rule.
3. Tilak famously declared that “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it.”
4. Radical nationalism drew inspiration from European revolutionary movements, combining national pride with calls for mass mobilisation.
5. Underground revolutionary groups such as the Anushilan Samiti and Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) used armed struggle and political assassination to strike at colonial authority.
6. Although limited in scope, these movements helped cultivate a spirit of sacrifice and defiance, strengthening the broader nationalist cause.

5. Gandhi and the Ideology of Non-Violent Nationalism

1. The entry of Mahatma Gandhi into Indian politics after 1915 transformed the nature of nationalism.
2. Gandhi introduced a moral and spiritual dimension to the struggle through his principles of ahimsa (non-violence) and satyagraha (truth-force).
3. He turned nationalism into a mass movement, mobilising millions across class, caste, and religious lines.
4. Campaigns such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), the Salt March (1930), and the Quit India Movement (1942) united Indians under a shared ideology of peaceful resistance.
5. Gandhi’s nationalism emphasised self-discipline, self-reliance, and rural upliftment, viewing independence not only as political freedom but as moral regeneration.
6. His ideology also sought to overcome social divisions through communal harmony, abolition of untouchability, and empowerment of women.

6. Socialist and Leftist Ideologies

1. By the 1930s, a new generation of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose began advocating socialist ideas.
2. They saw political independence as incomplete without economic and social justice.
3. Nehru was influenced by Marxism and Fabian socialism, envisioning a planned economy and industrial modernisation after independence.
4. The Congress Socialist Party (CSP) emerged within the Indian National Congress to push for workers’ rights, agrarian reform, and state control of key industries.
5. Bose, on the other hand, believed in achieving independence through militant struggle and alliance with anti-British powers, leading to his leadership of the Indian National Army (INA).
6. Although their approaches differed, both Nehru and Bose shared a left-leaning, secular, and anti-imperialist ideology that expanded the meaning of Indian nationalism beyond mere political sovereignty.

7. Communalism and the Two-Nation Theory

1. As independence approached, the ideological unity of the nationalist movement began to fracture along religious lines.
2. The All-India Muslim League, under Muhammad Ali Jinnah, argued that Muslims were a distinct political community with their own religious, cultural, and historical identity.
3. The Two-Nation Theory posited that Hindus and Muslims could not coexist within one state, leading to the demand for Pakistan.
4. Meanwhile, the Congress Party continued to uphold secular nationalism, insisting that India’s strength lay in its pluralism and diversity.
5. The ideological clash between religious and secular nationalism culminated in the Partition of 1947, resulting in immense violence and displacement.
6. Nonetheless, the Congress leadership under Nehru reaffirmed the vision of a secular, democratic India, guided by socialist principles and constitutional equality.

8. Nationalism as the Unifying Force

1. Despite ideological diversity, nationalism remained the unifying thread that brought together people from different regions, castes, and religions.
2. It transformed from an elite, urban movement into a mass struggle involving peasants, workers, students, and women.
3. The blending of political, economic, cultural, and religious ideologies gave Indian nationalism a unique character, inclusive yet contested, modern yet rooted in tradition.
4. This ideological richness enabled the movement to adapt to different historical phases, from moderate petitioning to mass mobilisation, civil disobedience, and eventually, constitutional democracy.

What was the role of social and economic factors in the Indian independence movement?

1. Economic Exploitation under British Rule

1. The British colonial system fundamentally reshaped India’s economy to serve imperial interests.
2. Policies such as deindustrialisation, heavy taxation, and free trade turned India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for British goods.
3. The traditional handloom and textile industries collapsed due to cheap British imports, leading to mass unemployment and urban decline.
4. Indian thinkers such as Dadabhai Naoroji exposed these injustices through his “Drain of Wealth” theory, arguing that Britain extracted vast economic resources from India without adequate return.
5. The economic grievances of peasants, artisans, and the emerging middle class became a unifying factor in the demand for economic self-reliance and national control over resources.

2. Agrarian Distress and Peasant Unrest

1. The vast majority of Indians were peasants who suffered under exploitative systems such as the zamindari and ryotwari land settlements.
2. High land taxes, debt, and frequent famines led to deep agrarian poverty.
3. Famines in 1876–78, 1899–1900, and 1943 exposed the callousness of British economic policy, as grain continued to be exported while millions starved.
4. Peasant movements such as the Indigo Revolt (1859–60), the Deccan Riots (1875), and the Tebhaga Movement (1946–47) reflected growing resistance to colonial exploitation.
5. Later, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi linked these struggles to the wider independence movement, emphasising village self-sufficiency and rural reform as central to Indian freedom.
6. Gandhi’s campaigns, including the Champaran (1917) and Kheda (1918) satyagrahas, directly addressed agrarian grievances, merging local struggles with nationalist goals.

3. Rise of the Indian Middle Class and Economic Awareness

1. The emergence of an educated Indian middle class, a product of British education, played a crucial role in shaping nationalist ideology.
2. Educated Indians, many employed in the colonial bureaucracy or professions, became aware of the economic injustices of British rule.
3. They began demanding economic and political representation, forming organisations such as the Indian National Congress (1885).
4. This new class articulated economic nationalism, promoting Swadeshi industries, Indian enterprise, and protective tariffs.
5. Newspapers, pamphlets, and public meetings spread economic arguments against colonial exploitation, transforming grievances into organised political action.

4. Industrialisation and the Swadeshi Movement

1. The Partition of Bengal (1905) triggered the Swadeshi Movement, a major economic and nationalist campaign.
2. Indians were urged to boycott British goods and promote indigenous industries, symbolising economic independence as national pride.
3. The movement led to the growth of Indian-owned enterprises in textiles, steel, and banking, such as the Tata Group, which became icons of Indian self-reliance.
4. Economic nationalism was intertwined with cultural identity, as Swadeshi also promoted traditional crafts, handlooms, and local production.
5. This marked a shift from passive protest to active economic resistance, linking the struggle for independence to economic empowerment.

5. Social Reform and Modernisation

1. Alongside economic grievances, social reform movements played a vital role in shaping nationalist consciousness.
2. Reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule campaigned against caste discrimination, child marriage, sati, and the oppression of women.
3. These movements fostered a sense of moral renewal and social unity, essential for building a modern nation.
4. The promotion of education, especially for women and lower castes, created a new generation of politically aware citizens.
5. The idea that social reform and national freedom were interconnected became central to the ideologies of leaders like Gandhi, who viewed independence as both political liberation and social transformation.

6. Caste and Class Divisions

1. The deeply entrenched caste system and economic inequalities posed challenges to national unity.
2. However, nationalist leaders attempted to bridge these divides. Gandhi championed the rights of the “Harijans” (untouchables), while B. R. Ambedkar demanded legal and social equality for the oppressed castes.
3. Peasant and worker movements in the 1930s, often inspired by socialist ideas, sought to address class exploitation.
4. The Indian National Congress Socialist Party (CSP), founded in 1934, promoted land reform, workers’ rights, and redistribution of wealth, tying the independence movement to social justice.
5. Despite tensions between different social and economic interests, the broader nationalist struggle provided a common platform for these groups.

7. Impact of Economic Depression and World Wars

1. The Great Depression (1929) severely affected Indian agriculture and trade, increasing unemployment and poverty.
2. The resulting hardship intensified anti-colonial sentiment and demands for economic self-sufficiency.
3. During World War I and II, Britain extracted massive economic resources and manpower from India, but post-war crises—inflation, food shortages, and unemployment—fueled discontent.
4. The economic sacrifices made by Indians, coupled with Britain’s failure to offer meaningful reforms, reinforced the idea that independence was essential for national prosperity.

8. Integration of Social and Economic Demands in the Freedom Struggle

1. The Congress leadership, especially under Gandhi and Nehru, integrated social and economic issues into their vision of freedom.
2. Gandhi’s focus on village industries, khadi (hand-spun cloth), and rural self-reliance linked economic independence to moral and social renewal.
3. Nehru, influenced by socialist and Marxist thought, emphasised industrialisation, planned development, and equitable distribution as post-independence goals.
4. The nationalist movement thus evolved to include not just political freedom, but the creation of a just and equitable society free from poverty, illiteracy, and exploitation.

What was the impact of the First World War on the Indian Independence Movement?

1. Introduction

1. The First World War (1914–1918) marked a major turning point in the Indian independence movement.
2. India’s immense contribution to the British war effort, both in manpower and resources, transformed political expectations, economic conditions, and nationalist aspirations.
3. The war exposed the contradictions of British imperialism, as promises of self-government were not fulfilled, leading to growing disillusionment and radicalisation among Indians.

2. India’s Contribution to the War Effort

1. Over 1.3 million Indian soldiers fought for Britain during the war, serving in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
2. More than 60,000 Indian troops were killed, and many more were wounded.
3. India also supplied food, raw materials, and funds, contributing the equivalent of £146 million to Britain’s war expenditure.
4. Indian princes, merchants, and peasants were heavily taxed or coerced into contributing to the war effort.
5. The war was presented by Britain as a shared imperial struggle, creating hopes among Indians that their loyalty and sacrifices would be rewarded with greater political autonomy after the conflict.

3. Economic Impact of the War

1. The war placed huge economic strains on India. Prices of basic commodities rose sharply. Inflation doubled during the war years.
2. The cost of living increased, hitting peasants and workers the hardest.
3. Heavy taxation and the demand for war loans created widespread hardship.
4. The war stimulated Indian industry, particularly textiles, steel, and chemicals, as imports from Britain declined.
5. This led to the growth of Indian-owned businesses and a more confident industrial bourgeoisie who began to demand economic independence and protection for Indian industries.
6. Thus, while the war caused economic pain for the poor, it also fostered economic nationalism among Indian entrepreneurs.

4. Political Expectations and the Rise of Nationalist Demands

1. Indian leaders, particularly moderates in the Indian National Congress, supported the British war effort in the expectation of political reforms after the war.
2. The 1917 Declaration by Edwin Montagu, Secretary of State for India, promised “the gradual development of self-governing institutions”, which raised nationalist hopes.
3. However, after the war, the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (1919) disappointed many Indians by offering only limited provincial autonomy under British supervision.
4. The frustration caused by these inadequate reforms led to disillusionment with moderate politics and a shift toward mass nationalism.

5. Growth of Radical and Mass Nationalism

1. The war years saw the rise of new, younger, and more radical nationalist leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi, who transformed the movement from an elite-led campaign into a mass struggle.
2. Gandhi’s experiences in South Africa and his philosophy of satyagraha (non-violent resistance) gained national prominence after 1915.
3. Post-war disillusionment with British promises and the harsh economic situation created fertile ground for mass mobilisation.
4. Peasant unrest, strikes, and protests increased, linking economic hardship to political grievances.
5. The Indian National Congress began to move from moderate petitioning to active political resistance, marking the beginning of a new phase in the independence movement.

6. The Impact of the Rowlatt Acts and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

1. In 1919, the British introduced the Rowlatt Acts, allowing imprisonment without trial for those suspected of “terrorist” activities.
2. This was seen as a betrayal of wartime promises of reform and freedom.
3. The Acts sparked widespread protests, which culminated in the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre in Amritsar (April 1919), where British troops under General Dyer killed hundreds of unarmed civilians.
4. The massacre shocked India and the world, destroying any lingering faith in the justice of British rule.
5. It marked a turning point—the Indian National Congress moved from seeking reform within the empire to demanding complete independence (Swaraj).
6. Gandhi launched his first nationwide satyagraha, and nationalist sentiment spread across all regions and social classes.

7. Social Changes and the Broadening of Nationalism

1. The war also brought about social transformation that strengthened nationalism.
2. The expansion of education, urbanisation, and industrial employment created new classes of politically conscious Indians - workers, students, and women - who began to participate in nationalist politics.
3. The returning soldiers, many disillusioned with the British after the war, became a potential source of militant energy for the nationalist cause.
4. The press and political organisations became more active, spreading anti-colonial ideas and highlighting British hypocrisy in talking of democracy while denying freedom to India.

8. International Influences

1. The end of the war saw the rise of global ideas of self-determination championed by US President Woodrow Wilson.
2. These ideals inspired Indian nationalists to argue that India too had the right to self-rule.
3. At the same time, the success of the Russian Revolution (1917) offered an alternative model of resistance and social transformation, influencing left-wing and socialist movements in India.
4. The combination of global and local factors deepened India’s anti-imperialist consciousness and strengthened calls for independence.

9. Long-term Political Consequences

1. The war fundamentally changed the relationship between India and Britain.
2. The British reliance on Indian resources exposed their dependence on the colony, undermining imperial prestige.
3. The post-war repression, such as the Rowlatt Acts and Amritsar massacre, alienated both moderates and radicals, uniting diverse groups against colonial rule.
4. The Congress adopted a more assertive stance, with leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, and Bose redefining nationalism in broader, more inclusive terms.
5. By the early 1920s, the movement had evolved from limited constitutional reform to a mass-based demand for full independence.

What were the aims of the Home Rule Leagues and what was the response of the British to growing demands for Home Rule?

1. Introduction

1. The Home Rule Movement marked a significant stage in the evolution of the Indian independence struggle, bridging the gap between early moderate constitutionalism and the later mass nationalism led by Gandhi.
2. The Home Rule Leagues, established in 1916 by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant, sought to mobilise Indians across the country to demand self-government within the British Empire, similar to the Dominion status enjoyed by countries such as Canada and Australia.
3. Their emergence reflected growing discontent with British rule, particularly in the aftermath of the First World War and the limitations of earlier constitutional reforms.

2. Background to the Home Rule Movement

1. Before the First World War, Indian politics had been dominated by moderate and extremist divisions within the Indian National Congress.
2. The partition of Bengal (1905) and the British policy of ‘divide and rule’ had angered Indian nationalists, leading to growing frustration with the slow pace of constitutional change.
3. When the war began in 1914, the British expected Indian loyalty, but nationalist leaders saw an opportunity to press for self-government in recognition of India’s contribution to the war effort.
4. It was in this context that Tilak and Besant launched their Home Rule Leagues in 1916, inspired partly by the Irish Home Rule movement.

3. The Aims of the Home Rule Leagues

1. The central aim was to achieve Home Rule, meaning self-government within the British Empire, rather than complete independence.
2. The movement sought to educate and mobilise Indians at the grassroots level, turning constitutional reform into a mass political demand.
3. Specific objectives included:
   1. To secure self-government for India similar to that granted to white dominions such as Canada and Australia.
   2. To promote political education and awaken national consciousness among ordinary Indians.
   3. To unify moderate and extremist factions of Indian nationalism after years of division within the Congress.
   4. To increase Indian participation in local and central government, moving towards responsible self-rule.
   5. To mobilise opinion across classes and regions, including Hindus, Muslims, and other communities, for a shared national goal.
4. The movement also emphasised peaceful and constitutional methods, such as petitions, public meetings, and propaganda campaigns, while rejecting violent means.

3. The Role of Tilak and Besant

1. Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Home Rule League was founded in April 1916 in Poona, and operated mainly in western India, Bombay Presidency, and parts of central India.
   1. Tilak focused on mass mobilisation, using his charisma, newspapers, and public meetings to spread nationalist sentiment.
   2. He popularised the slogan “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it”, which became a rallying cry for Indian self-government.
2. Annie Besant’s Home Rule League was established in September 1916, operating from Madras and covering southern India as well as parts of the North.
   1. A British-born theosophist and reformer, Besant appealed to both Indian intellectuals and moderate Congress leaders.
   2. Her journalistic work, including in New India, played a key role in spreading the Home Rule message.
3. The cooperation between Tilak and Besant symbolised the reunification of Indian nationalism, as their efforts brought together moderates, extremists, and even members of the Muslim League.

4. The Spread of the Movement

1. The Home Rule Leagues quickly gained momentum, with membership estimated at around 60,000–70,000 by 1917.
2. They set up branches across the country, organised mass meetings, and circulated pamphlets explaining the concept of self-government.
3. The movement attracted support from professionals, students, teachers, and lawyers, many of whom became the next generation of nationalist leaders.
4. Crucially, the Lucknow Pact (1916) between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League coincided with the rise of the Home Rule Leagues, demonstrating a rare moment of Hindu-Muslim unity.
5. The movement succeeded in reviving nationalist enthusiasm during the war years, when open agitation had been restricted by British wartime measures.

5. The British Response to Home Rule

1. The British government viewed the Home Rule agitation as a threat to wartime unity and imperial control.
2. The colonial authorities responded with repressive measures, including censorship, arrests, and the banning of nationalist publications.
3. In 1917, Annie Besant was arrested and interned, which only increased public outrage and brought widespread sympathy for the movement.
4. Protests demanding her release spread throughout India, leading to demonstrations, strikes, and meetings.
5. Under mounting pressure, the British released Besant in September 1917 and sought to diffuse the situation by promising political reforms.

6. The Montagu Declaration and Its Impact

1. In response to growing agitation, the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, made a declaration in August 1917, promising “the gradual development of self-governing institutions” in India.
2. This was the first official British statement recognising India’s right to some form of self-government.
3. The declaration temporarily appeased moderate nationalists, but its vague language fell far short of the Home Rule demand for full Dominion status.
4. Many nationalists viewed it as a tactical move to pacify Indian opinion during the war, rather than a genuine commitment to reform.
5. The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (1919) that followed introduced limited provincial autonomy, but real power remained with British officials.

7. Decline of the Home Rule Movement

1. After the British promises of reform, the Home Rule Leagues began to lose momentum.
2. Tilak’s departure to Britain in 1918 to pursue a legal case weakened his League’s leadership.
3. Annie Besant’s influence also declined after her release, as she became more moderate and less critical of British intentions.
4. The rise of Mahatma Gandhi after 1919 and his policy of mass civil disobedience through non-cooperation shifted attention away from constitutional methods like Home Rule.
5. The movement’s organisational weaknesses and the absence of a clear strategy for achieving self-government contributed to its eventual decline.

8. Legacy and Significance

1. Despite its short-lived nature, the Home Rule Movement had a lasting impact on Indian nationalism.
2. It revived political activity after years of stagnation and reawakened a sense of national purpose.
3. It united moderates and extremists, and brought new energy and organisational structure to the Indian National Congress.
4. The movement popularised the idea of self-rule (Swaraj) as a realistic and achievable goal.
5. It also introduced mass political mobilisation and public education, which later movements under Gandhi would build upon.
6. The British response, repression followed by promises of reform, highlighted the limitations of colonial concessions and set the stage for more radical forms of resistance in the 1920s.