Exploration and Conquest in Latin America Notes

Cortés arrives in Mexico (1519)

1. Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, landed on the coast of Mexico with around 600 men, a few horses, and cannons.
2. He quickly formed alliances with Indigenous groups hostile to Aztec domination, such as the Tlaxcalans and the Totonacs, using diplomacy and intimidation to strengthen his position.
3. Cortés also relied on Malinche (Doña Marina), an enslaved Indigenous woman who became his translator, advisor, and intermediary, crucial for communication and negotiations.
4. After founding Veracruz, Cortés defied the governor of Cuba’s orders and declared loyalty directly to the Spanish Crown, establishing his own independent command.

Capture of Moctezuma

1. Upon reaching Tenochtitlan, Cortés was received peacefully by Emperor Moctezuma II, who believed the Spanish might be divine or returning gods, according to some accounts.
2. Cortés seized Moctezuma and held him hostage to control the Aztec leadership and secure tribute from the empire.
3. Tensions rose when Spanish reinforcements arrived from Cuba to arrest Cortés, forcing him to leave briefly and fight them, weakening his control in the city.
4. In June 1520, an uprising erupted after the killing of Aztec nobles during a festival, leading to the Noche Triste (“Night of Sorrows”), when the Spanish were expelled with heavy losses.
5. Despite this setback, Cortés regrouped with Indigenous allies, besieged Tenochtitlan in 1521, and destroyed the Aztec capital, marking the collapse of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of Spanish rule in Mexico.

Fall of the Aztec Empire (1521)

1. After retreating during the Noche Triste (1520), Cortés rebuilt his forces with the help of thousands of Indigenous allies, most notably the Tlaxcalans, who provided troops, supplies, and local knowledge.
2. He launched a full siege on Tenochtitlan that lasted several months, cutting off food, water, and trade routes to starve the city into submission.
3. The combination of Spanish artillery, warships on Lake Texcoco, and devastating smallpox outbreaks among the Aztecs crippled their resistance.
4. On August 13, 1521, the Aztec capital fell. Emperor Cuauhtémoc, Moctezuma’s successor, was captured, and the Aztec Empire was officially destroyed, paving the way for the creation of New Spain.
5. The Spanish razed Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City atop its ruins, transforming it into the administrative and religious heart of Spanish America.

Reasons for Spanish success against Aztecs

1. Indigenous Alliances
   1. Cortés’s success depended on forming alliances with Indigenous groups who resented Aztec dominance and tribute demands.
2. Military Technology
   1. Spanish forces used steel swords, armor, crossbows, cannons, and horses, giving them a psychological and tactical edge.
3. Disease
   1. Smallpox and other European diseases decimated the Aztec population, including key military leaders and priests.
4. Aztec Political Divisions
   1. Internal dissent among conquered peoples weakened the Aztec ability to unite against the invaders.
5. Religious Interpretation
   1. Some Aztecs initially believed Cortés might be linked to the return of the god Quetzalcoatl, delaying full resistance.
6. Leadership and Strategy
   1. Cortés’s use of diplomacy, deception, and adaptation to local conditions showed strategic flexibility uncommon among conquistadors.

Pizarro and the Inca Empire (1532)

1. Francisco Pizarro ambushed and captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa at Cajamarca, demanding and receiving a massive ransom in gold and silver before executing him.
2. The Spanish justified their actions by claiming Atahualpa rejected Christianity and Spanish authority, framing the conquest as a “holy war” rather than open aggression.

Weakness of the Inca Empire

1. The Inca were weakened by a recent civil war between Atahualpa and his brother Huáscar, and by smallpox that had already spread from Central America.

Conquest of Cuzco (1533)

1. The Inca were weakened by a recent civil war between Atahualpa and his brother Huáscar, which divided loyalties across the empire.
2. Smallpox and other European diseases, introduced before the Spanish arrival, decimated the population and disrupted political and military organization.
3. The Inca Empire’s vast geography and reliance on regional administrators (curacas) made communication and unity difficult, allowing the Spanish to exploit local rivalries.

Manco Inca’s resistance (1536)

1. Manco Inca initially cooperated with the Spanish, hoping to preserve some Inca authority, but turned against them after enduring humiliation and abuse.
2. In 1536, he led a massive uprising and besieged Cuzco for months, nearly retaking the city. Despite his numerical advantage, Spanish horses, firearms, and native allies tipped the balance.
3. After his defeat, Manco Inca retreated to Vilcabamba, establishing a Neo-Inca state that resisted Spanish control until 1572, when it was finally conquered.

Reasons for Spanish success against Incas

1. Disease, civil war, superior weapons, and the capture of Atahualpa crippled Inca unity. The Spanish also exploited rivalries among local groups.
2. Long-term consequences
   1. Both the Aztec and Inca empires were destroyed, millions of indigenous people died, and Spanish colonies were established, reshaping Latin America politically, socially, and culturally.