Exploration and Conquest in Latin America Notes

Cortés arrives in Mexico (1519)

1. Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, landed on the coast of Mexico with around 600 men, a few horses, and cannons.
2. He quickly formed alliances with Indigenous groups hostile to Aztec domination, such as the Tlaxcalans and the Totonacs, using diplomacy and intimidation to strengthen his position.
3. Cortés also relied on Malinche (Doña Marina), an enslaved Indigenous woman who became his translator, advisor, and intermediary, crucial for communication and negotiations.
4. After founding Veracruz, Cortés defied the governor of Cuba’s orders and declared loyalty directly to the Spanish Crown, establishing his own independent command.

Capture of Moctezuma

1. Upon reaching Tenochtitlan, Cortés was received peacefully by Emperor Moctezuma II, who believed the Spanish might be divine or returning gods, according to some accounts.
2. Cortés seized Moctezuma and held him hostage to control the Aztec leadership and secure tribute from the empire.
3. Tensions rose when Spanish reinforcements arrived from Cuba to arrest Cortés, forcing him to leave briefly and fight them, weakening his control in the city.
4. In June 1520, an uprising erupted after the killing of Aztec nobles during a festival, leading to the Noche Triste (“Night of Sorrows”), when the Spanish were expelled with heavy losses.
5. Despite this setback, Cortés regrouped with Indigenous allies, besieged Tenochtitlan in 1521, and destroyed the Aztec capital, marking the collapse of the Aztec Empire and the beginning of Spanish rule in Mexico.

Fall of the Aztec Empire (1521)

1. After retreating during the Noche Triste (1520), Cortés rebuilt his forces with the help of thousands of Indigenous allies, most notably the Tlaxcalans, who provided troops, supplies, and local knowledge.
2. He launched a full siege on Tenochtitlan that lasted several months, cutting off food, water, and trade routes to starve the city into submission.
3. The combination of Spanish artillery, warships on Lake Texcoco, and devastating smallpox outbreaks among the Aztecs crippled their resistance.
4. On August 13, 1521, the Aztec capital fell. Emperor Cuauhtémoc, Moctezuma’s successor, was captured, and the Aztec Empire was officially destroyed, paving the way for the creation of New Spain.
5. The Spanish razed Tenochtitlan and built Mexico City atop its ruins, transforming it into the administrative and religious heart of Spanish America.

Reasons for Spanish success against Aztecs

1. Indigenous Alliances
   1. Cortés’s success depended on forming alliances with Indigenous groups who resented Aztec dominance and tribute demands.
2. Military Technology
   1. Spanish forces used steel swords, armor, crossbows, cannons, and horses, giving them a psychological and tactical edge.
3. Disease
   1. Smallpox and other European diseases decimated the Aztec population, including key military leaders and priests.
4. Aztec Political Divisions
   1. Internal dissent among conquered peoples weakened the Aztec ability to unite against the invaders.
5. Religious Interpretation