Causes of Domestic Opposition
- Religious Intolerance
- Under Aurangzeb, strict enforcement of Sharia law and reintroduction of the jizya tax angered non-Muslims.
- Regional Resentment
- Local rulers (e.g., Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs) opposed the growing power of the centralized Mughal state.
- Economic Pressures
- High taxation and the decline of agricultural productivity caused peasant revolts in many provinces.
- Succession Conflicts
- Frequent wars of succession weakened stability, as Mughal princes fought for the throne instead of ensuring governance.
- Administrative Corruption
- The mansabdari system became inefficient; officials kept tax revenues and ignored imperial orders.
Definition
Mansabdari System
- Administrative and military ranking system defining officers’ pay and responsibilities.
Definition
Jizya Tax
- A tax on non-Muslims under Islamic law, abolished by Akbar.
Case study
The Maratha Revolt (17th Century)
Origins
- The Marathas, led by Shivaji, opposed Mughal control in western India.
- Resented high taxes and interference in local administration.
- Aimed to create a Hindu kingdom free from Mughal domination.
- The conflict began during Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns, which drained imperial resources.
- The rugged terrain of the Western Ghats made Mughal conquest difficult.
Impact
- Prolonged war exhausted the Mughal treasury and army.
- Weakened Mughal authority in southern India.
- Encouraged regional independence movements in other provinces.
- Exposed Aurangzeb’s failure to maintain balance between faith and politics.
- Marked the start of imperial decentralization.
Nature and Spread of Opposition
- Peasant Uprisings
- Harsh land revenue demands sparked revolts in Bengal, Punjab, and Gujarat.
- Noble Rebellions
- Discontented Mansabdars (nobles) sought more autonomy as the central government lost power.
- Ethnic and Regional Revolts
- Rebellions by the Jats, Satnamis, and Afghans reflected deep local anger.
- Religious Resistance
- Sikh and Maratha leaders combined religious and nationalist motivations.
- Declining Loyalty
- Provincial governors began ignoring imperial orders, keeping taxes for themselves.
Definition
Jats
- Agricultural community in north India known for frequent uprisings.
Case study
The Sikh Rebellion (Late 17th Century)
Causes
- Originated under Guru Tegh Bahadur, who opposed religious persecution by Aurangzeb.
- His execution (1675) radicalized the Sikh movement.
- Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a military community (Khalsa) to defend their faith.
- The Mughals’ harsh suppression turned a regional issue into a national religious resistance.
- The Sikh movement became both spiritual and political.
Consequences
- Sikh militarization destabilized Mughal control in Punjab.
- The empire had to divert military focus to constant northern conflicts.
- Created a legacy of religious hostility between Sikhs and the Mughal state.
- Weakened Mughal prestige among both Muslims and non-Muslims.
- Later, Sikh unity paved the way for the rise of the Sikh Empire in the 18th century.
Effects of Domestic Opposition
- Political Fragmentation
- The empire divided into semi-independent states (e.g., Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh).
- Economic Decline
- Wars and rebellions disrupted trade, agriculture, and revenue collection.
- Loss of Central Authority
- Local governors became de facto rulers, ignoring imperial edicts.
- Military Weakness
- Rebellions drained the army, making the empire vulnerable to foreign invasions (Persians, Afghans).
- Cultural Shifts
- As imperial patronage declined, regional cultures and languages flourished independently.
Definition
Autonomy
- Freedom to govern independently without central oversight.
Common Mistake
- Blaming only religion: Opposition was also economic and administrative, not just faith-based.
- Ignoring regional dynamics: Each revolt had unique local causes (Maratha = autonomy, Sikh = persecution).
- Assuming sudden collapse: Decline was gradual, starting from internal instability before European arrival.
Exam technique
- Group Causes: Structure essays by categories i.e. political, economic, religious.
- Use Case Studies: Include Maratha and Sikh revolts as concrete evidence.
- Link to Decline: Always connect opposition to the empire’s loss of unity and control by 1707.
Self review
- Examine the main causes of domestic opposition to Mughal rule in the 17th century.
- To what extent did domestic revolts contribute to the decline of the Mughal Empire?
- Assess the impact of regional and religious opposition on Mughal stability.
