Foreign policy
- Goal: Castro aimed for economic independence from the U.S. after 1959.
- Agrarian Reform Law (May 1959): Limited land ownership; seized large estates, including U.S.-owned sugar plantations.
- Expropriation: By 1960, ~40% of farmland taken; U.S. assets nationalized, including Texaco, Shell, Esso, United Fruit, Cuban Electric Co., and all U.S. banks.
- Justification: Castro framed it as sovereignty and economic justice; offered bonds as compensation tied to U.S. sugar imports (rejected by U.S.).
- U.S. response:
- October 1960: Partial embargo (cut sugar imports, stopped exports).
- January 1961: Diplomatic ties severed.
- 1962: Kennedy imposed full embargo, which largely remains in place.
- Cuba turned to the USSR in 1960, gaining trade, loans, military aid, and a defense guarantee against U.S. intervention.
Note
- Embargo: government order restricting or banning trade with a country
- Purpose: apply economic pressure for political disputes, security, or human rights issues
- Scope: broad ban on goods, services, and financial transactions
- Difference from sanctions: sanctions are targeted, embargoes are wide-ranging
Note
- Castro’s revolution began as nationalist, not communist.
- U.S. hostility and Cold War pressures pushed him toward the USSR.
- In 1961, he formally declared the revolution socialist.
- On December 2, 1961, in a televised speech, he stated: “I am a Marxist–Leninist and shall be one until the end of my life.”
- Before 1961, he denied being a communist, stressing nationalist and anti-imperialist goals.
Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) - a point of no return for Cuba’s foreign policy
- Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1961): Failed U.S.-backed attempt to overthrow Castro.
- Planned under Eisenhower, approved by Kennedy, executed by the CIA.
- Brigade 2506: ~1,400 Cuban exiles trained in Guatemala/Nicaragua. Goal: land, spark uprising, topple Castro.
- Landing (17 April, Playa Girón): Poor intelligence, lack of air support (Kennedy canceled strikes), and strong Cuban resistance led to failure.
- Outcome: Within 72 hours, invasion collapsed. 1,100 captured, ~100 killed.
- Impact on Castro: Political triumph, framed as victory against U.S. imperialism, boosting legitimacy.
- Impact on Cold War: Pushed Cuba closer to USSR, Castro declared socialism, set stage for Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).
Historiography
- The US motivations for the Bay of Pigs invasion
- Orthodox view:
- Bay of Pigs was part of U.S. Cold War containment, driven by fear of Cuba becoming a Soviet satellite close to U.S. shores.
- Revisionist view:
- Invasion reflected U.S. imperial overreach and arrogance.
- Policymakers misread Cuban support for Castro and aimed to reassert economic and strategic control over the Caribbean, continuing long-standing interventionist policies.
- Orthodox view:
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
- Background: After Bay of Pigs (1961), Cuba allied closely with the USSR.
- Soviet move: Khrushchev secretly deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba (1962) to protect Castro, deter U.S. aggression, and counter U.S. missiles in Turkey/Italy.
- Discovery: U-2 reconnaissance photos (Oct 1962) exposed missile sites; Kennedy informed immediately.
- U.S. response: Kennedy announced a “quarantine” (naval blockade) on Oct 22 to stop further Soviet shipments.
- Crisis peak (Oct 22–28): Superpowers on high alert; U.S. at DEFCON 2; Soviet ships approached blockade.
- Negotiations: Khrushchev sent one conciliatory and one harsh letter; Kennedy replied to the first, de-escalating tensions.
- Resolution (Oct 28): USSR removed missiles; U.S. pledged not to invade Cuba + secretly agreed to remove Jupiter missiles from Turkey.
- Impact on Cuba: Castro excluded from talks; demands (end of embargo, Guantánamo withdrawal) ignored. Highlighted Cuba’s dependence on Soviet protection.
The International Revolution
- Castro supported leftist liberation movements globally, notably in Africa.
- Cuban troops and advisors played a critical role in Angola’s civil war (1975-1991), backing the MPLA against U.S.- and South African-supported factions.
Case study
Che Guevara and International Revolution
- After the revolution, Che Guevara held top posts (Minister of Industry, National Bank president).
- Grew frustrated with Soviet dependence and bureaucratic turn of the revolution.
- Advocated rapid industrialization, voluntary labor, moral over material incentives, clashed with pragmatic leadership.
- By 1965, withdrew from public life; went to Congo to aid rebels—mission failed.
- Moved to Bolivia to launch continental revolution; lacked support, captured by CIA-backed Bolivian forces.
- Executed October 1967.
Cuba’s Soviet Dependence
- Cold War: Cuba depended on Soviet subsidies (sugar, nickel, oil, military aid).
- Vital for survival under U.S. embargo and for Castro’s power.
- 1991 USSR collapse → Special Period: severe crisis, forced economic & political diversification.
- New partners: Canada, Spain, China.
- Venezuela (Chávez): oil + political alliance crucial during Special Period.
Self review
- Why did Castro expropriate U.S.-owned land and businesses after 1959, and how did the U.S. respond?
- How did the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) shape Cuba’s alignment with the USSR and Castro’s domestic legitimacy?
- What were the causes, key events, and outcomes of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), and how did it affect Cuba’s role in the Cold War?
- In what ways did Cuba pursue an “international revolution,” and what was its involvement in Angola’s civil war?
- How did the collapse of the USSR in 1991 affect Cuba’s economy and foreign alliances, and what role did Venezuela play during the Special Period?
