Agrarian Reform Law (May 1959): Limited land ownership; seized large estates, including U.S.-owned sugar plantations.
Expropriation: By 1960, ~40% of farmland taken; U.S. assets nationalized, including Texaco, Shell, Esso, United Fruit, Cuban Electric Co., and all U.S. banks.
Justification: Castro framed it as sovereignty and economic justice; offered bonds as compensation tied to U.S. sugar imports (rejected by U.S.).
U.S. response:
October 1960: Partial embargo (cut sugar imports, stopped exports).
January 1961: Diplomatic ties severed.
1962: Kennedy imposed full embargo, which largely remains in place.
Cuba turned to the USSR in 1960, gaining trade, loans, military aid, and a defense guarantee against U.S. intervention.
Note
Embargo: government order restricting or banning trade with a country
Purpose: apply economic pressure for political disputes, security, or human rights issues
Scope: broad ban on goods, services, and financial transactions
Difference from sanctions: sanctions are targeted, embargoes are wide-ranging
Note
Castro’s revolution began as nationalist, not communist.
U.S. hostility and Cold War pressures pushed him toward the USSR.
In 1961, he formally declared the revolution socialist.
On December 2, 1961, in a televised speech, he stated: “I am a Marxist–Leninist and shall be one until the end of my life.”
Before 1961, he denied being a communist, stressing nationalist and anti-imperialist goals.
Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961) - a point of no return for Cuba’s foreign policy
Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1961): Failed U.S.-backed attempt to overthrow Castro.
Planned under Eisenhower, approved by Kennedy, executed by the CIA.
Landing (17 April, Playa Girón): Poor intelligence, lack of air support (Kennedy canceled strikes), and strong Cuban resistance led to failure.
Outcome: Within 72 hours, invasion collapsed. 1,100 captured, ~100 killed.
Impact on Castro: Political triumph, framed as victory against U.S. imperialism, boosting legitimacy.
Impact on Cold War: Pushed Cuba closer to USSR, Castro declared socialism, set stage for Cuban Missile Crisis (1962).
Historiography
The US motivations for the Bay of Pigs invasion
Orthodox view:
Bay of Pigs was part of U.S. Cold War containment, driven by fear of Cuba becoming a Soviet satellite close to U.S. shores.
Revisionist view:
Invasion reflected U.S. imperial overreach and arrogance.
Policymakers misread Cuban support for Castro and aimed to reassert economic and strategic control over the Caribbean, continuing long-standing interventionist policies.
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
Background: After Bay of Pigs (1961), Cuba allied closely with the USSR.
Soviet move: Khrushchev secretly deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba (1962) to protect Castro, deter U.S. aggression, and counter U.S. missiles in Turkey/Italy.
U.S. response: Kennedy announced a “quarantine” (naval blockade) on Oct 22 to stop further Soviet shipments.
Crisis peak (Oct 22–28): Superpowers on high alert; U.S. at DEFCON 2; Soviet ships approached blockade.
Negotiations: Khrushchev sent one conciliatory and one harsh letter; Kennedy replied to the first, de-escalating tensions.
Resolution (Oct 28): USSR removed missiles; U.S. pledged not to invade Cuba + secretly agreed to remove Jupiter missiles from Turkey.
Impact on Cuba: Castro excluded from talks; demands (end of embargo, Guantánamo withdrawal) ignored. Highlighted Cuba’s dependence on Soviet protection.
The International Revolution
Castro supported leftist liberation movements globally, notably in Africa.
Cuban troops and advisors played a critical role in Angola’s civil war (1975-1991), backing the MPLA against U.S.- and South African-supported factions.
Case study
Che Guevara and International Revolution
After the revolution, Che Guevara held top posts (Minister of Industry, National Bank president).
Grew frustrated with Soviet dependence and bureaucratic turn of the revolution.
Advocated rapid industrialization, voluntary labor, moral over material incentives, clashed with pragmatic leadership.
By 1965, withdrew from public life; went to Congo to aid rebels—mission failed.
Moved to Bolivia to launch continental revolution; lacked support, captured by CIA-backed Bolivian forces.
Executed October 1967.
Cuba’s Soviet Dependence
Cold War: Cuba depended on Soviet subsidies (sugar, nickel, oil, military aid).
Vital for survival under U.S. embargo and for Castro’s power.
1991 USSR collapse → Special Period: severe crisis, forced economic & political diversification.
New partners: Canada, Spain, China.
Venezuela (Chávez): oil + political alliance crucial during Special Period.
Active recall
Why did Castro expropriate U.S.-owned land and businesses after 1959, and how did the U.S. respond?
How did the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) shape Cuba’s alignment with the USSR and Castro’s domestic legitimacy?
What were the causes, key events, and outcomes of the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), and how did it affect Cuba’s role in the Cold War?
In what ways did Cuba pursue an “international revolution,” and what was its involvement in Angola’s civil war?
How did the collapse of the USSR in 1991 affect Cuba’s economy and foreign alliances, and what role did Venezuela play during the Special Period?