Warfare on the borders (Mediterranean and Balkans)
Ongoing frontier wars between Christian kingdoms (Castile, Aragon, Portugal) and Muslim-ruled al-Andalus shaped the Reconquista.
Mediterranean campaigns involved naval clashes over trade routes, piracy, and island control.
In the Balkans, Christian-Muslim confrontations reinforced a broader pattern of hostility, feeding into pan-European anti-Muslim sentiment.
Warfare contributed to militarization of society in frontier regions.
Knightly orders like Santiago and Calatrava gained prestige defending Christianity.
Loss of economic activity and cultural/intellectual diversity
Muslim-ruled Spain (al-Andalus) had been an economic and intellectual hub:
Agriculture (irrigation, citrus, rice)
Trade networks
Textiles
Urban prosperity.
Conquest and expulsion of Muslims led to economic decline in formerly prosperous regions as skilled laborers, artisans, and merchants were lost.
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What were the ongoing frontier wars during the Reconquista?
