Chinese Civil War: Practices of War and the Impact on the Outcome Notes

Key Questions

1. What was the significance of tactics and strategy on the outcome of the war?
2. What was the impact of foreign intervention on the outcome of the war?
3. What was the role of the mobilisation of human and economic resources on the outcome of the war?

Strategic Operations

The First Phase of the War

The Jiangxi Soviet

1. The CCP retreated into Jiangxi province to survive the GMD onslaught, establishing what became known as the Jiangxi Soviet.
2. Mao argued that the United Front with the GMD would destroy the CCP, and he believed the revolution should be based on peasants rather than urban workers.
3. Mao organized the Jiangxi Soviet around this principle, emphasizing that the peasants were central to revolutionary success.
4. This view contrasted with orthodox Marxism but gained support as Mao successfully mobilized peasants in rural areas.

Division within the CCP

1. Mao’s strategy emphasized peasant-led revolution, guerrilla warfare, and land reform in controlled areas.
2. The Comintern, however, insisted on urban uprisings, leading to failed attacks known as the “Li Lisan Line.”
3. These failures weakened the CCP in the cities and confirmed the party’s reliance on rural support.
4. Li Lisan was dismissed, and leadership tensions grew between Moscow-trained Communists and Mao.

GMD Attempts to Exterminate the CCP

1. Jiang Jieshi carried out five “Encirclement Campaigns” between 1930 and 1934, aimed at destroying the Jiangxi Soviet.
2. The Red Army, under Mao and Zhou Enlai, used guerrilla tactics and peasant support to defeat the first four campaigns.
3. By the fifth campaign, the GMD deployed 800,000 troops with modern weaponry and forced the CCP into retreat.

The Long March

1. In 1934, the CCP broke through GMD lines at Ruijin and began a 9,600-kilometre retreat known as the Long March.
2. The march lasted over a year and led to the death of more than 90 percent of the 90,000 who started.
3. Despite heavy losses, it became a powerful symbol of CCP resilience and unity.

Key Events of the Long March

1. At the Xiang River crossing, poor strategy led to 50,000 deaths, discrediting the Moscow-trained leaders.
2. At the Zunyi Conference in 1935, Mao consolidated leadership of the CCP.
3. The Red Army used deception to cross the Upper Yangtze River and carried out the dramatic crossing of the Luding Bridge.
4. Disputes with Zhang Guotao split the Red Army, but Mao retained control of a core force.
5. The Red Army endured deadly conditions in the Songpan Marshes before finally reaching Shaanxi in 1935.

Yan'an Soviet

1. After the Long March, Mao and his remaining forces established a base in Yan’an, Shaanxi.
2. This base became the new centre of the Chinese Communist movement.

Mao and Revolutionary Warfare

1. Mao’s struggle against the GMD was a revolutionary war, since it aimed not only to defeat the Nationalists militarily but also to impose a new revolutionary ideology on China.
2. The choice for the Chinese people was between Maoism, which sought to completely restructure society, the economy, and government, and Nationalism, which essentially tried to preserve the existing system.
3. Mao believed that the peasants were the key to revolutionary success, so his priority was to win their support and convince them of the Communist cause.

Setting Up Base Areas

1. Mao planned to establish “base areas” in remote regions, where the CCP could organize peasants and educate them in Communist ideas.
2. Within these bases, peasants would be introduced to new systems of taxation and justice provided by the CCP, which Mao argued were fairer than those they had endured before.
3. Respect for the peasants was a core principle, demonstrated by the “Eight Rules of the Eighth Route Army,” which emphasized treating all people with dignity.
4. This respectful approach helped secure the trust and loyalty of the rural population.

The Organization Phase

1. Once base areas were established, CCP leaders would extend their influence into neighbouring villages to repeat the same process.
2. This gradual expansion was what Mao called the “organization phase.”
3. The strategy aimed to steadily gain control of the countryside, which would eventually isolate the cities and make it possible for the CCP to take political control of China.

Defending the Bases

1. As the CCP collected taxes and governed in the base areas, they inevitably attracted GMD attacks.
2. Mao trained peasants to use guerrilla-style, hit-and-run tactics, exploiting their knowledge of the terrain and strong support from the local population.
3. When the GMD pursued CCP forces into these hostile areas, they became vulnerable to ambushes or would find that the guerrillas had disappeared into the community.
4. Over time, this constant harassment wore down enemy forces and lowered morale.
5. Furthermore, when the GMD resorted to harsh tactics, such as mass attacks or looting, they only alienated the population further and strengthened support for the Communists.

The Guerrilla Phase

1. Mao emphasized that survival was always possible through retreat, as demonstrated by the Long March.
2. If forced to abandon one base, the CCP could retreat, establish new bases, and continue building their forces.
3. Each retreat created opportunities for more peasants to join the movement, ensuring that guerrilla warfare could continue indefinitely.

Protracted War

1. Mao believed that his strategy would result in a long conflict, which he described as a “protracted war.”
2. He argued that as the number of guerrilla fighters increased, so too would the frequency and effectiveness of their attacks on the enemy.
3. Over time, this gradual growth in strength would eventually shift the balance of power in favour of the guerrillas.

Seizing Power

1. Once the guerrilla forces had gained enough strength, the revolution would enter the “open” or “mobile” phase.
2. In this stage, smaller guerrilla units would merge together to form a conventional army capable of confronting the enemy directly.
3. By 1946, when the second phase of the Chinese Civil War began, the CCP had already reached this stage.
4. After victory, Mao emphasized that a period of consolidation would be necessary to eliminate the remnants of the old regime and secure Communist power.

End of the First Stage of the Civil War – The Second United Front (1937)

1. The Long March ensured the survival of the CCP and established Mao as the undisputed leader.
2. Meanwhile, Jiang Jieshi still viewed the Communists as the main threat, even though Japan had already invaded Manchuria in 1931.
3. Jiang appealed to the League of Nations but avoided direct confrontation, famously remarking that the Japanese were a “disease of the skin” while the Communists were a “disease of the heart.”

Rising Japanese Threat

1. In 1932, Jiang attempted to resist Japanese attacks on Shanghai, but after heavy losses he agreed to a truce.
2. By 1933, Japanese forces advanced to the Great Wall, deepening Chinese resentment and fuelling anti-Japanese nationalism.
3. Mao called for a new United Front to unite all Chinese forces against Japan, gaining support from northern warlords such as Zhang Xueliang and Yan Xishan.

Comintern Pressure and the Xi’an Incident

1. It was the Comintern – not Mao – that ultimately pushed for the alliance. Stalin feared further Japanese expansion from Manchuria and believed only Jiang could lead an effective resistance.
2. In December 1936, warlord Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Jiang Jieshi in Xi’an, where Jiang had been planning another campaign against the CCP.
3. While some wanted Jiang executed, the Comintern ordered his release after 13 days, showing Soviet influence.
4. In April 1937, the Second United Front was formally established. The civil war was suspended in favour of a “National War of Resistance” against Japan.

Benefits of the Alliance

1. The GMD gained material support, particularly from the USSR and potentially from the USA.
2. The CCP gained political legitimacy, as they could no longer be dismissed as mere “bandits.”
3. The CCP also hoped that the prolonged war against Japan would weaken and exhaust the GMD militarily and politically.

The Marco Polo Bridge Incident and Japanese Advance

1. In July 1937, clashes between Chinese and Japanese forces at the Marco Polo Bridge triggered full-scale war.
2. The Japanese quickly captured Beijing, and by August, Jiang’s forces were heavily defeated in the Battle of Shanghai, suffering around 300,000 casualties.
3. The GMD relocated the capital from Nanjing to Chongqing, leaving Nanjing vulnerable.
4. In late 1937, Japanese forces committed mass atrocities in what became known as the “Rape of Nanjing.”

Why was the CCP able to survive the first phase of the war?

CCP Successes

1. The Long March ensured the survival of the CCP and established a defensible base in Yan’an.
2. The march was a propaganda victory, spreading CCP policies to many thousands and winning patriotic support for claiming to fight the Japanese.
3. The experience confirmed Mao’s leadership, provided valuable fighting experience, and united survivors into a dedicated revolutionary group.
4. Mao’s offer of a united front with the GMD against Japan boosted CCP popularity and allowed them to present themselves as the true nationalists.

GMD Errors

1. The GMD’s decision to prioritize fighting the CCP over resisting Japan lost them patriotic support.
2. Their poor treatment of peasants further eroded popularity and created resentment in the countryside.
3. The GMD failed to implement Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles, weakening its ideological legitimacy.

The Impact of the Sino-Japanese War

The GMD

1. The GMD moved its capital to Chongqing, losing tax revenue from occupied regions. Printing more money led to high inflation, damaging support among both peasants and middle classes.
2. Corruption and poor treatment of soldiers weakened the army, while conscription alienated peasants.
3. Despite aid from the USA, supplies were limited due to Japanese control of ports and key transport routes.
4. The GMD was weakened by factionalism, repression, and military failures, which alienated the population.
5. The GMD mainly fought conventional battles against Japan, suffering huge losses and exhausting its forces.
6. By the later war years, the GMD appeared to be waiting for the USA to defeat Japan, leading to a loss of respect among the population.

The CCP

1. Mao balanced priorities, stating the CCP should focus 70% on expansion, 20% on resisting the GMD, and 10% on fighting Japan.
2. By 1945, the CCP controlled 678 out of 914 country towns, implementing land reform, tax reduction, debt abolition, schools, and local soviets.
3. The CCP won peasant support by addressing their immediate needs and protecting them against Japanese occupation (James Sheridan).
4. During the GMD blockade of Yan’an (1939), the CCP achieved a level of self-sufficiency through taxation in goods and requiring officials and soldiers to engage in agricultural production (Jack Gray).
5. The Rectification Campaigns (1941–44) consolidated Mao’s ideology, promoted the “mass line,” emphasized guerrilla warfare, and eliminated rival factions. However, some educated recruits faced persecution as “class enemies.”
6. While historians debate the military significance of CCP resistance to Japan, the perception was that the CCP gave strong leadership.
7. The CCP used guerrilla warfare as propaganda, presenting themselves as the true nationalists while portraying Jiang Jieshi as a puppet of Western imperialists.

Second Phase of the Civil War, 1946–1949

1. By the end of the war with Japan, the CCP was significantly strengthened while the GMD was weakened, allowing the Communists to shift from guerrilla warfare to more conventional fighting.
2. Unlike the first phase (1927–1937), the second phase was shaped by the Cold War, as both the USA and USSR tried to influence China’s future.

International Context

1. Both the USSR and USA wanted a stable China and a weakened Japan.
2. The USA sought a coalition government, while the USSR wanted influence in Manchuria.
3. Despite attempts at diplomacy, neither side (GMD or CCP) was willing to share power, meaning the conflict would ultimately be decided militarily.

Failure of US Diplomacy

1. General Marshall brokered a temporary agreement in 1946: coalition government, united army, free elections.
2. However, both sides moved troops into Manchuria, undermining the deal.
3. In 1945, the GMD had 4 million troops (with better weapons) versus the CCP’s 1 million. At this stage, the GMD appeared stronger.

Initial GMD Victories (1945–1947)

1. The CCP moved into Manchuria after Japan’s surrender; the Soviets handed them captured Japanese weapons.
2. The USA aided the GMD, airlifting 500,000 GMD troops to Manchuria and deploying 50,000 US soldiers in Beijing.
3. The GMD initially forced the CCP out of cities, but their corruption and harsh governance alienated the population.
4. A US-brokered truce (1946) collapsed, and by May the GMD controlled central Manchuria. However, their popularity weakened due to corruption and reliance on US support.

CCP Counterattack (1947–1948)

1. A ceasefire in 1946 gave the CCP time to regroup, train forces, and launch land reform, gaining strong peasant support.
2. Fighting resumed in 1947:
   1. The GMD captured Yan’an, but CCP forces switched back to guerrilla tactics, isolating GMD troops by targeting supply lines.
   2. By 1948, the PLA (People’s Liberation Army) had grown stronger, with heavier weaponry than the GMD.
3. In March 1948, the CCP gained control of Manchuria, inflicting heavy losses (40,000 GMD troops).

Collapse of GMD Resistance (1948–1949)

1. PLA launched a conventional offensive at Xuzhou, defeating the GMD in a decisive battle.
2. In early 1949:
   1. Tianjin and Beijing fell to the Communists.
   2. The PLA took Nanjing (April), Shanghai (May), and Guangzhou (October).
   3. By November, all major GMD resistance had been crushed.
3. On 1 October 1949, Mao declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China in Beijing

Reasons for Communist Success

Guerrilla tactics and revolutionary warfare

1. The CCP effectively used guerrilla tactics during the first phase of the Civil War, in the war against Japan, and in Manchuria during the second phase of the Civil War.

Leadership of the PLA

1. The PLA was led by Lin Biao, who transformed it from a guerrilla force into a regular army.
2. The PLA grew stronger due to desertions from Nationalist forces and by capturing enemy weapons.
3. The soldiers of the PLA were better supplied, better trained, and highly motivated, which gave them far higher morale than Nationalist troops.
4. The good behaviour of Communist soldiers encouraged peasants to support the CCP.

Role of Mao Zedong

1. Mao’s leadership during the Long March and the use of innovative guerrilla tactics were central to the CCP’s survival and eventual success.
2. Mao was able to take advantage of the opportunities presented by the war with Japan and adapt his policies to suit changing military circumstances.
3. During the war against Japan, Mao stressed national unity over class struggle to broaden support across different social groups.

Spread of Communist ideas

1. The CCP used periods of control to implement land reform in rural areas, which increased peasant support.
2. In towns, the Communists took control of law and order, managed food distribution, and established fair taxation systems.
3. These policies helped to widen the CCP’s base of popular support throughout China.

Role of intelligence

1. The CCP had spies in key GMD positions, including Liu Fei, the head of the GMD War Planning Board, and the Nationalist commander Wei Lihuang in Manchuria.
2. These spies provided advance knowledge of GMD plans, allowing the CCP to anticipate and counter enemy actions.
3. The GMD was unable to infiltrate Communist forces, giving the CCP a decisive intelligence advantage.

Jiang Jieshi’s Mistakes

1. Jiang’s continued resistance to democratic reforms and the increasingly repressive nature of his regime alienated liberals and the middle classes.
2. The GMD relied heavily on a narrow base of wealthy businessmen and landlords for support, which limited its appeal to the wider population.
   1. Corruption and inefficiency within the Nationalist government further reduced public confidence and support.
   2. Rampant inflation damaged the economic standing of the middle classes and weakened support for Jiang’s regime.
   3. Decisive economic reforms, such as the introduction of a new currency and rationing, only occurred in 1948, which was too late to prevent economic collapse in Nationalist-controlled areas by 1949.
3. Many of Jiang’s troops were poorly trained, poorly motivated, and frequently disobeyed orders, leading to high levels of desertion.
   1. The behaviour of Nationalist troops towards civilians contrasted sharply with that of Communist forces, which followed strict codes of conduct.
4. Jiang made serious strategic errors, such as overcommitting forces in Manchuria, fighting a disastrous campaign at Xuzhou, and micromanaging campaigns from a distance, which reduced their effectiveness.

Role of Foreign Support

The USA

1. The United States supported the GMD with almost $3 billion in aid and supplied large quantities of arms during World War II.
2. At the start of the second stage of the Civil War, the Americans transported GMD troops by sea and air to northern China, and US forces occupied Tianjin and Beijing until the GMD was ready to assume control.
3. Despite this support, Jiang’s regime was too ineffective to take full advantage of American aid.
4. US pressure to agree to truces sometimes harmed the GMD’s position, and the presence of American forces provided excellent propaganda opportunities for the Communists.

The USSR

1. The Soviet Union was initially reluctant to provide significant military or economic support to the CCP.
2. Soviet assistance in Manchuria, including establishing military training colleges and training CCP pilots, helped to modernize and strengthen the PLA.
3. Stalin attempted to limit Mao’s military expansion in 1949 due to fear of provoking the United States, but Mao ignored his advice and continued advancing into southern China.