Domestic Policies: Social Policies
Tip
- Questions about social policies will demand you work with education, health, youth and gender policies and policies regarding religious groups and minorities.
- Please bear in mind that you don’t need to cover all these aspects!
- Make sure you know at least three of them back to back.
- Gender and minorities can appear as stand alone questions.
Education
- The 1961 Literacy Campaign
- Before 1959, rural Cuba had widespread illiteracy and poor access to education.
- In 1961, Castro declared the “Year of Education” and launched a mass literacy campaign.
- 271,000 brigadistas (teachers and volunteers) taught reading and writing, mainly in rural areas.
- Military barracks were converted into schools; more schools were built between 1959–1962 than in the previous 58 years.
- Illiteracy dropped from 24% to 4% by 1962.
- The campaign both educated the poor and politicized youth, tying education to revolutionary values.
- Education as Ideological Training
- After 1961, all private schools nationalized; education reshaped to produce loyal revolutionaries.
- Curricula focused on revolutionary heroes; libraries purged of counter-revolutionary texts.
- Teachers trained in the USSR/Eastern Europe; dissenting educators dismissed.
- Schools emphasized ideological training, with students expected to join volunteer labor and monitor teachers’ political views.
Self review
- The Literacy Campaign of 1961 can be seen as the most relevant success of Castro’s domestic policies.
- Make sure you take notes of it for questions that demand that you assess or evaluate policies.
- In the following Historiography box you have more nuance to present a successful assessment.
Historiography
- An assessment of the Literacy Campaign (1961)
- Positive view:
- Education as social justice and revolutionary inclusion; “heroic and unprecedented” mass mobilization of 250,000 volunteers (many women and youth).
- Promoted literacy, class consciousness, and national unity. Elevated women’s roles and framed education as a human right.
- Critical view:
- Literacy used as ideological indoctrination; materials infused with propaganda, promoting political loyalty over independent thought.
- Gains in literacy acknowledged but seen as reinforcing authoritarianism.
- Positive view:
Youth policies
- Children and teens drawn into state-controlled organizations (UJC, José Martí Pioneers).
- Schools and groups instilled loyalty, discipline, and civic rituals tied to the revolution.
- Youth took part in literacy campaigns, harvests, and agricultural work, blending ideology with productive labor.
Case study
José Martí Pioneer Organization (Organización de Pioneros José Martí)
- Founded in 1961, modeled on Soviet youth groups, for children 6–15.
- Aimed to instill Marxist-Leninist values: obedience, collectivism, sacrifice.
- Named after José Martí, linking independence heroism to revolutionary ideals.
- Children wore blue/red scarves, pledged to be “like Che,” and joined rituals, songs, community service, and drills.
- Worked with the Ministry of Education: textbooks promoted revolutionary heroes, and participation was near-universal.
- Noncompliance could mean academic penalties or blocked advancement.
Healthcare Expansion
- Declared a universal right; clinics and hospitals expanded into rural areas.
- Despite U.S. embargo, by 1981 infant mortality fell to 18.5/1,000 and poverty-related diseases declined.
- Focus on preventive care and rural outreach; Rural Medical Service (1965) sent doctors to remote areas.
- Doctors per capita rose from 1 per 1,000 (1958) to 6 per 1,000 (2000s).
- Achievements: eradication of polio, malaria, mass vaccinations, strong primary care.
- ELAM (1999) - Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina in Spanish: trained thousands of foreign doctors, strengthening Cuba’s global medical role.
- WHO praised Cuba’s low infant mortality and high life expectancy, comparable to developed nations.
- Problems: 1990s Special Period brought medicine shortages, hospital decline, and a two-tier system favoring elites and tourists.
Self review
- As a rule of thumb, think about Castro’s economic policies being overall a failure and his social policies being successful.
- Nevertheless, the dependency and limitations derived from the failed economy impacted the social policies in a very significant way.
Housing and Living Standards
- Rural gains: Access to electricity rose from 10–15% (1959) to over 60% (1980s); potable water and sewage systems expanded.
- Housing failures: Chronic deficit persisted; pre-1959 average of 27,000 homes/year fell to <15,000 in the 1960s.
- State initiatives: INAV (1961) + voluntary micro-brigades failed due to scarce materials and bureaucracy.
- Soviet boost: Prefabricated housing in the 1976–80 Five-Year Plan peaked at 40,000 units in 1978, but unsustained.
- Deficit: By late 1980s, Cuba faced a shortage of 500,000+ units, worsening overcrowding in Havana.
Self review
- Education
- 1961 Literacy Campaign: Mobilized 271,000 brigadistas, converted barracks into schools, illiteracy dropped from 24% → 4%.
- Linked education with revolutionary values and youth politicization.
- Post-1961: Schools nationalized; curricula focused on revolutionary heroes, ideological training prioritized over neutrality.
- Youth Policies
- Children and teens enrolled in José Martí Pioneers and UJC.
- Youth integrated into civic rituals, agricultural work, literacy campaigns → loyalty + discipline.
- Healthcare Expansion
- Declared a universal right; rural outreach + preventative care prioritized.
- Doctors per capita rose from 1/1,000 (1958) → 6/1,000 (2000s).
- Major achievements: eradication of polio/malaria, mass vaccinations, strong primary care, global medical training (ELAM, 1999).
- WHO praised Cuba’s results (low infant mortality, high life expectancy).
- Problems: Special Period (1990s) → medicine shortages, hospital decline, two-tier system.
- Housing and Living Standards
- Rural electrification expanded: 10–15% (1959) → 60%+ (1980s); potable water projects increased.
- Housing deficit persisted: fell from 27,000 homes/year (pre-1959) → <15,000 (1960s).
- INAV (1961) + micro-brigades failed due to bureaucracy + shortages.
- Five-Year Plan (1976–80) with Soviet aid peaked at 40,000 units (1978) but unsustained.
- By late 1980s: deficit of 500,000+ units, overcrowding in Havana worsened.
Self review
- How did the 1961 Literacy Campaign combine both educational progress and political indoctrination?
- In what ways did the nationalization of schools after 1961 reshape Cuban education?
- How were Cuban youth organizations used to instill loyalty to the revolution?
- What were Cuba’s major healthcare achievements, and how did the Special Period undermine them?
- Why was housing one of the revolution’s most persistent failures despite Soviet assistance?
