Reasons for the Soviet Invasion and Early Impact
- Afghanistan became a Cold War battleground after political instability and the rise of a communist government threatened Soviet strategic interests in Central Asia.
- In 1978 the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power, imposing radical reforms that angered tribal, religious and ethnic groups.
- Resistance grew rapidly, with uprisings across rural Afghanistan.
- The Soviet Union feared the collapse of a neighboring communist government and the spread of Islamic militancy into Central Asia.
- Moscow believed intervention would stabilize Afghanistan and preserve a friendly regime.
- The invasion on 24 December 1979 triggered regional alarm and international condemnation.
Case study
Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)
Motivations and Decision Making
- The PDPA leadership was divided, and the Soviets feared losing influence to internal conflict.
- The assassination of PDPA leader Hafizullah Amin, whom the Soviets distrusted, accelerated intervention plans.
- Soviet leaders believed a quick military operation would restore order and secure communist control.
- Protecting Afghanistan from perceived Western influence was considered essential for Soviet security.
- Moscow misjudged Afghan nationalism and underestimated resistance.
Immediate Impact
- Soviet troops quickly occupied Kabul, installing Babrak Karmal as a more reliable communist leader.
- Widespread Afghan anger intensified as foreign troops entered the country.
- Many tribes united under the banner of the mujahedeen, turning local uprisings into national resistance.
- The invasion triggered strong international criticism, including the US-led boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics.
- The conflict escalated into a long, costly war for the Soviet Union.
Definition
PDPA
Afghan communist party that took power in 1978 and requested Soviet assistance.
Definition
Mujahedeen
Islamic fighters who resisted Soviet forces in Afghanistan.
Nature of the Conflict and International Involvement
- The Soviet-Afghan War became a brutal guerrilla conflict marked by superpower involvement and massive destruction.
- The Soviets relied on conventional tactics, air power and heavy artillery to target resistance strongholds.
- The mujahedeen used hit-and-run attacks, mountain knowledge and decentralized leadership.
- Pakistan served as a sanctuary and training base, becoming central to the resistance.
- The United States, Saudi Arabia and China provided funding, weapons and intelligence to the mujahedeen.
- The war displaced millions of Afghans, creating one of the world’s largest refugee crises.
Case study
International Support for the Mujahideen
Foreign Aid and Strategy
- The US launched Operation Cyclone, one of the longest and most expensive covert operations of the Cold War.
- Pakistan’s ISI distributed weapons, trained fighters and coordinated guerrilla networks.
- Saudi Arabia matched US funding and supported conservative Islamic factions.
- China provided weapons to weaken Soviet power in Central Asia.
- International involvement transformed Afghan resistance into a major geopolitical struggle.
Effects on the Conflict
- The introduction of Stinger missiles in 1986 enabled mujahedeen to shoot down Soviet aircraft.
- Soviet supply lines and outposts became vulnerable, reducing control over rural areas.
- Foreign funding allowed resistance to expand and intensify, prolonging the war.
- Civilian casualties increased as the Soviets responded with scorched-earth tactics.
- The war became unwinnable for the USSR and politically unpopular at home.
Definition
Operation Cyclone
US program supplying funds and weapons to Afghan resistance groups.
Definition
ISI (Inter-Services Intelligence)
- Pakistani intelligence agency coordinating support for the mujahedeen.
Withdrawal of Soviet Troops and Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)
- In 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev called the war a “bleeding wound” and sought withdrawal.
- The Geneva Accords (1988) formalized Soviet withdrawal and recognized Afghan sovereignty.
- Soviet troops completed their withdrawal on 15 February 1989, ending direct involvement.
- Without Soviet support, the communist government in Kabul struggled to maintain control.
- By 1992, the PDPA regime collapsed, leading to factional conflict among mujahedeen leaders.
Common Mistake
- Ignoring Afghan nationalism and focusing only on superpower rivalry.
- Overemphasizing the Soviet military role without explaining the strength of mujahedeen resistance.
- Forgetting the importance of Pakistan’s ISI and the regional dimension of the war.
- Treating the withdrawal as an end point without analyzing the civil war that followed.
- Overlooking the global consequences, such as the emergence of new militant networks.
Self review
- Assess the reasons for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.
- Examine the nature and consequences of international involvement in the Afghan conflict.
- To what extent did the Soviet withdrawal lead to Afghanistan’s civil war?
Theory of Knowledge
- How does political ideology shape the justification of foreign interventions?
- Can historical objectivity exist when conflicts involve covert operations and propaganda?
- How does the interpretation of victory or defeat depend on perspective?
Exam technique
- Connect internal Afghan causes (PDPA reforms, tribal resistance) with external Cold War dynamics.
- Use strong case studies: Soviet invasion, foreign support, fall of Najibullah.
- Show contrast between Soviet conventional warfare and mujahedeen guerrilla strategy.
- Emphasize long-term consequences including state collapse and rise of the Taliban.
- Explain how both regional and global actors shaped the war.
