Theory in global politics Notes

Understanding Theory in Global Politics

1. Theory in global politics provides frameworks for understanding, explaining, and predicting international relations and political behavior.
2. Theories help simplify complex realities by highlighting key factors and relationships.

The Role of Theory in Global Politics

1. Simplification: Theories distill complex realities into manageable concepts.
2. Explanation: They offer insights into why states and actors behave in certain ways.
3. Prediction: Theories can help anticipate future trends and outcomes.
4. Normative Guidance: Some theories provide ethical or normative frameworks for evaluating political actions.

Key Theories in Global Politics

Realism

Key assumptions:

1. Humans are naturally selfish and competitive.
2. The international system is anarchic, there is no higher authority than the state.

Branches:

1. Classical Realism (focus on human nature)
2. Structural Realism (focus on international system)

Classical Realism

1. Key thinkers: Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes
2. Core belief: Human nature is egoistic and power-seeking; states reflect this nature.
3. Hobbes’ view: Without authority, life is a "state of nature", "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
4. Implication: States act in their own self-interest, leading to competition and conflict.

Structural Realism (Neorealism)

1. Key thinkers: John Mearsheimer, Stephen Walt
2. Core belief: Power-seeking behaviour is caused by the structure of the international system, not human nature.
3. Five key assumptions:
   1. States exist in an anarchic global system.
   2. All states have some offensive military capability.
   3. States can never be certain of other states' intentions.
   4. States seek survival as their primary goal.
   5. States are rational actors making decisions in their own self-interest.

Offensive vs Defensive Structural Realism

1. Offensive realism (Mearsheimer):
   1. States should maximise power to ensure security.
   2. Global and regional hegemony are seen as strategic goals.
2. Defensive realism (Kenneth Waltz):
   1. Pursuing too much power creates instability.
   2. States should balance power to maintain security.
   3. Defensive states are more likely to win wars due to home advantage and nationalist resistance.
   4. Costs of conquest often outweigh the benefits.

Liberalism

1. Core Assumptions:
   1. States are not the only actors; international institutions, NGOs, and multinational corporations also play significant roles.
   2. Cooperation is possible through interdependence and institutions.
   3. Democracy and economic interdependence reduce the likelihood of conflict.
2. Key Concepts:
   1. Collective Security: States work together to prevent aggression.
   2. Democratic Peace Theory: Democracies are less likely to go to war with each other.
3. Criticisms:
   1. Overestimates the effectiveness of institutions.
   2. Underestimates the persistence of power politics.

Constructivism

1. Core Assumptions:
   1. The international system is socially constructed.
   2. Ideas, norms, and identities shape state behavior.
   3. Anarchy is what states make of it; it does not inherently lead to conflict.
2. Key Concepts:
   1. Norms: Shared expectations about appropriate behavior.
   2. Identity: How states perceive themselves and others.
3. Criticisms:
   1. Lacks predictive power.
   2. Can be difficult to operationalize in empirical research.

Marxism

1. Core Assumptions:
   1. Global politics is driven by economic interests and class struggle.
   2. The international system is characterized by capitalist exploitation.
2. Key Concepts:
   1. Economic Core vs Periphery
      1. The world is divided into wealthy "core" states and poor "periphery" states.
      2. Core countries benefit from global capitalism at the expense of the periphery.
   2. Dependency Theory
      1. Rich countries maintain dominance over poor ones through international institutions, aid, and unfair trade.
      2. Poor countries stay dependent, ensuring global inequality remains.
   3. Elites
      1. Elites in poorer states often align with global elites, not with their own citizens.
      2. Encourages corruption and mismanagement when elite interests are protected.
   4. Role of MNCs/TNCs
      1. Multinational corporations are not neutral players.
      2. They shape policy to exploit labour and maximise profits, often at the expense of local populations.
      3. Criticises the liberal idea that MNCs are benign actors of cooperation.
3. Criticisms:
   1. Overemphasizes economic factors.
   2. Neglects the role of culture and ideology.

Feminism

1. Core Assumptions:
   1. Global politics is gendered, with power structures that marginalize women.
   2. Traditional theories overlook the role of gender in shaping political outcomes.
2. Key Concepts:
   1. Intersectionality
      1. Women’s experiences differ based on race, class, geography, etc.
      2. Example: A black working-class woman in Eastern Europe faces different barriers than a white woman in Southeast Asia.
   2. Visibility and Representation
      1. Women are underrepresented in leadership:
      2. Only 13 of 193 UN member states had a female head of government (as of March 2023).
      3. 85% of ambassadors are male.
      4. Armed forces and strategic roles are male-dominated.
      5. Feminists argue this reflects deep-rooted exclusion, not just individual choices.
   3. Patriarchy and Masculine Norms
      1. Feminist theory argues global politics is dominated by masculine norms like aggression, militarism, and competition.
      2. These norms shape everything from leadership styles to how war and diplomacy are conducted.
   4. Gender-Based Violence
      1. Seen as both a human rights issue and a political issue.
      2. One in three women globally experience violence.
      3. Feminists highlight how institutions fail to address or even acknowledge gendered violence.
      4. Violence occurs on a continuum, from domestic abuse to rape as a weapon of war.
3. Criticisms:
   1. Some argue it lacks a unified theoretical framework.
   2. Can be seen as too focused on gender at the expense of other factors.

Postcolonialism

1. Core Assumptions:
   1. Colonialism and imperialism still shape global politics today through power structures, discourse, and knowledge systems.
   2. Western dominance persists, not only through economics and politics, but through the control of ideas, norms, and narratives.
   3. Global power is racialized, race and identity are central to understanding inequality and marginalization in global relations.
2. Key Concepts
   1. Discourse
      1. Refers to dominant ways of thinking and speaking about global politics.
      2. Postcolonialists argue that much of global discourse reflects Western norms and marginalizes non-Western voices.
      3. Example: Development is often portrayed as a Western gift, ignoring histories of resistance and self-determination.
3. Orientalism (Edward Said)
   1. Western portrayal of the East as irrational, exotic, and inferior.
   2. Reinforces an "us vs. them" mindset, justifying intervention and control.
4. Colonial Legacy
   1. Sovereignty, statehood, and development are Western constructs imposed on colonized nations.
   2. Even after independence, many postcolonial states continue to operate within systems built by and for colonial powers.
5. Racialized Power
   1. Global inequality and foreign policy are shaped by racial hierarchies.
   2. Example: Western nuclear states are seen as legitimate; non-Western ones are labelled threats (e.g., Iran, North Korea).
6. Decolonization
   1. Seeks to challenge and undo colonial legacies in education, governance, and international norms.
   2. Recent movements include curriculum reform, statue removals, and cultural reparations (e.g., Rhodes Must Fall).
7. Criticisms of Postcolonialism
   1. Overemphasis on identity and discourse: Critics argue that postcolonialism may underplay material or structural factors (like class or institutions).
   2. Limited policy guidance: It offers critique rather than clear solutions or predictive models for global politics.
   3. Broad and interpretive: Postcolonialism can be hard to apply consistently due to its focus on narratives, perceptions, and representation.
   4. Tension with universalism: Challenges the idea of shared human rights norms, which may conflict with liberal or humanitarian approaches.

Applying Theory to Real-World Examples

The Importance of Theoretical Pluralism

1. No single theory can fully explain the complexity of global politics.
2. Theoretical pluralism encourages a diverse range of perspectives, enriching our understanding of international relations.