Understanding Theory in Global Politics

- Theory in global politics provides frameworks for understanding, explaining, and predicting international relations and political behavior.
- Theories help simplify complex realities by highlighting key factors and relationships.
- Theories are not absolute truths; they are tools for analysis.
- Different theories may offer contrasting explanations for the same event.
The Role of Theory in Global Politics
- Simplification: Theories distill complex realities into manageable concepts.
- Explanation: They offer insights into why states and actors behave in certain ways.
- Prediction: Theories can help anticipate future trends and outcomes.
- Normative Guidance: Some theories provide ethical or normative frameworks for evaluating political actions.
- When analyzing a political event, consider how different theories might interpret the same situation.
- This can reveal underlying assumptions and biases.
Key Theories in Global Politics
Realism
Realism
A major theory in global politics focused on power and the idea that international relations are shaped by conflict and self-interest.
Key assumptions:
- Humans are naturally selfish and competitive.
- The international system is anarchic, there is no higher authority than the state.
Branches:
- Classical Realism (focus on human nature)
- Structural Realism (focus on international system)
Classical Realism
- Key thinkers: Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes
- Core belief: Human nature is egoistic and power-seeking; states reflect this nature.
- Hobbes’ view: Without authority, life is a "state of nature", "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
- Implication: States act in their own self-interest, leading to competition and conflict.
Structural Realism (Neorealism)
- Key thinkers: John Mearsheimer, Stephen Walt
- Core belief: Power-seeking behaviour is caused by the structure of the international system, not human nature.
- Five key assumptions:
- States exist in an anarchic global system.
- All states have some offensive military capability.
- States can never be certain of other states' intentions.
- States seek survival as their primary goal.
- States are rational actors making decisions in their own self-interest.
Offensive vs Defensive Structural Realism
- Offensive realism (Mearsheimer):
- States should maximise power to ensure security.
- Global and regional hegemony are seen as strategic goals.
- Defensive realism (Kenneth Waltz):
- Pursuing too much power creates instability.
- States should balance power to maintain security.
- Defensive states are more likely to win wars due to home advantage and nationalist resistance.
- Costs of conquest often outweigh the benefits.
- Nuclear Weapons and Strategic Stability
- Retaliatory capacity: The ability to strike back after a nuclear attack.
- Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): If both sides have second-strike capability, they are deterred from attacking first.
- Both offensive and defensive realists agree that nuclear weapons are only useful if both sides have them, and using them first is strategically irrational.
- Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022):
- From a realist perspective, Russia's actions can be understood as a pursuit of power, influence, and security in a strategically important region.
- Realists argue that Russia acted to protect its sphere of influence and counter NATO expansion, viewing the international system as anarchic and driven by self-interest.
- The invasion reflects the belief that states must rely on themselves for survival and that military power is essential in maintaining their position.
Liberalism
Liberalism
Liberalism is a major theory of global politics, seen as a response to realism. It emphasizes cooperation, interdependence, and the role of non-state actors. Unlike realism, it sees the international system as capable of change and progress.
- Core Assumptions:
- States are not the only actors; international institutions, NGOs, and multinational corporations also play significant roles.
- Cooperation is possible through interdependence and institutions.
- Democracy and economic interdependence reduce the likelihood of conflict.
- Key Concepts:
- Collective Security: States work together to prevent aggression.
- Democratic Peace Theory: Democracies are less likely to go to war with each other.
- Criticisms:
- Overestimates the effectiveness of institutions.
- Underestimates the persistence of power politics.
- The European Union is often cited as an example of liberalism in action, promoting peace and cooperation through economic and political integration.
Constructivism
Constructivism
A critical theory that challenges realism and liberalism. Argues that global politics is socially constructed through norms, beliefs, identities, and discourse. Rejects the idea of a single objective reality, what matters is how we interpret and give meaning to things.
- Core Assumptions:
- The international system is socially constructed.
- Ideas, norms, and identities shape state behavior.
- Anarchy is what states make of it; it does not inherently lead to conflict.
- Key Concepts:
- Norms: Shared expectations about appropriate behavior.
- Identity: How states perceive themselves and others.
- Criticisms:
- Lacks predictive power.
- Can be difficult to operationalize in empirical research.
- Finland and Sweden joining NATO (2022–2023)
- For decades, Finland and Sweden remained militarily neutral, shaped by their historical identities and norms of non-alignment.
- However, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 dramatically shifted their national identities and threat perceptions.
- Public discourse and political narratives quickly reframed NATO membership, once seen as provocative, as essential for national security.
- This shift highlights constructivist ideas:
- Threats are not objectively fixed; they are socially interpreted.
- State identities can evolve rapidly in response to changing international norms and events.
Marxism
Neo-Marxism
Based on Karl Marx's theory, but applied to global systems. Focuses on class conflict, not just within states but between wealthy and poor countries. Emphasizes how capitalism and global economic structures create inequality and dependency.
- Core Assumptions:
- Global politics is driven by economic interests and class struggle.
- The international system is characterized by capitalist exploitation.
- Key Concepts:
- Economic Core vs Periphery
- The world is divided into wealthy "core" states and poor "periphery" states.
- Core countries benefit from global capitalism at the expense of the periphery.
- Economic Core vs Periphery


