Peacebuilding is about developing positive peace to reduce the chances of future conflict. It includes efforts at all stages, from stopping war to rebuilding society.
Ramsbotham’s Hourglass Model
Visualises how conflict escalates and de-escalates.
Top bulb: Conflict escalation → difference → contradiction → polarization → violence → war.
Neck: Peak of conflict (decision point – escalate or resolve).
The sand at the top is tension building up (conflict escalation), the neck is the crisis point(war/peak violence), and the bottom is efforts to clean up the mess and prevent it from happening again(de-escalation and peacebuilding).
Core Elements of Peacebuilding
1. De-escalation
Involves peacemaking, peacekeeping, and DDR (Disarmament, Demobilization, Reintegration).
Starts once immediate violence stops and supports long-term transformation.
Case study
Colombia Peace Deal (2016)
The Colombian government signed a ceasefire and peace agreement with the FARC guerrilla group after decades of armed conflict.
Included Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) of fighters, monitored by the UN.
Marked a shift from active violence to structured peace talks and reconciliation.
Criticisms: bias (especially against African leaders), cost, political influence.
Case study
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
Established in 1994 by the UN after the Rwandan Genocide.
Prosecuted key figures for genocide and crimes against humanity, including government officials and media leaders who incited violence.
Achieved some accountability but faced criticism for high costs and long trials.
2. International Criminal Court (ICC)
Tries grave crimes, limited to Rome Statute member states.
Relies on state cooperation.
Criticised for low conviction rates, perceived bias, and limited jurisdiction.
Case study
Thomas Lubanga (DR Congo)
First conviction by the ICC in 2012.
Lubanga was found guilty of recruiting and using child soldiers in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Set a legal precedent, but ICC has been criticised for focusing too heavily on Africa and relying on state cooperation.
3. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
UN’s principal judicial body.
Settles disputes between states.
Case study
Gambia v. Myanmar (2020–ongoing)
Gambia brought a case against Myanmar at the ICJ for allegedly committing genocide against the Rohingya.
The ICJ issued provisional measures ordering Myanmar to protect the Rohingya population.
Highlights the ICJ’s role in state-to-state accountability.
Common Mistake
Confusing the ICC with the ICJ
ICC prosecutes individuals for crimes
ICJ settles disputes between states.
Restorative Justice
Focuses on healing, not punishment.
Involves community dialogue, rebuilding trust.
Based on five guiding questions:
Who was hurt?
What are their needs?
Who is responsible?
Who else is affected?
What is the right way to make things right?
Case study
New Zealand’s Youth Justice System
Young offenders (14–17) attend Family Group Conferences (FGCs) instead of court. Offenders, victims, families, and social workers meet to discuss the harm caused and agree on a plan for reparation (e.g. apology, community service).
Focus: Accountability, healing, reintegration Outcome: Lower reoffending, victim satisfaction, stronger community ties
Common Mistake
Believing legal justice alone is sufficient
Remember that emotional healing and social repair are equally crucial.
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRCs)
Investigate past injustices and promote healing.
Emphasize truth-telling, recommendations, and reconciliation.
Case study
The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC)
Established in 1995 after apartheid, South Africa’s TRC aimed to reveal the truth about human rights abuses and promote national healing.
Led by Desmond Tutu, the TRC allowed victims to testify and perpetrators to seek amnesty if they fully disclosed politically motivated crimes.
Key features:
Fact-Finding: Collected over 21,000 statements, with public hearings exposing systemic violence.
Recommendations: Final report proposed reparations, legal reforms, and memorials.
Timebound: Operated from 1995–2002, producing a comprehensive report on apartheid-era abuses.
The TRC is seen as a model of restorative justice, prioritizing truth and reconciliation over punishment to rebuild a divided society.
Active recall
What is peacebuilding, and how does it differ from peacemaking and peacekeeping?
How does Ramsbotham’s hourglass model explain the stages of conflict escalation and resolution?
What are the main goals and limitations of international criminal tribunals, the ICC, and the ICJ in peacebuilding?
Exam technique
Paper 1 (Source-Based, 1h15m, 25 marks)
For Q1 (3m), identify the specific peacebuilding activities (DDR, transitional justice, elections, development) in the source.
For Q2 (4m), explain how the source assesses peacebuilding - link to liberal peacebuilding, local ownership, or hybrid peace.
For Q3 (6m), compare how sources evaluate peacebuilding - one as successful reconstruction, another criticizing top-down or externally driven models.
For Q4 (12m), evaluate whether international peacebuilding creates lasting peace, using sources AND examples like Rwanda, Bosnia, or Timor-Leste.
Paper 2 (Extended Essay, 1h45m, 30 marks)
Section A: Analyze specific post-conflict reconstruction efforts with measurable outcomes and sustainability indicators.
Section B: Connect to themes like justice, development, rights, or reconciliation.
Top band (13-15) requires diverse perspectives - liberal peacebuilding critics, local ownership advocates, and hybrid peace scholars.
Paper 3 - HL Only (Stimulus-Based, 1h30m, 28 marks)
For Q1 (3m), analyse how the stimulus reveals peacebuilding challenges or successes.
For Q2b (6m), recommend peacebuilding approaches that prioritize local ownership while leveraging international support.
For Q3 (15m), synthesize case studies of peacebuilding to assess which approaches deliver sustainable peace.
