Development as a Multidimensional Process
- Imagine a world where development is measured solely by income.
- Would that capture the quality of life, gender equality, or environmental sustainability?
- Development is far more complex, encompassing social, economic, and environmental dimensions.
- Some would also argue that human development should include the political sphere, namely good governance, human rights, and individual freedoms. This, however, depends on culture and system of values.
Key Indicators of Development
Human Development Index (HDI): A Mainstream Composite Measure
Human Development Index (HDI)
The Human Development Index (HDI) is an official indicator published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and a widely used tool to assess a country's overall development.
It combines three key dimensions:
- Life Expectancy: Reflects health and longevity.
- Education: Measured by:
- Mean Years of Schooling: Average years of education received by people aged 25 and older.
- Expected Years of Schooling: Number of years a child entering school is expected to receive.
- Income: GNI per capita adjusted for purchasing power parity (PPP) to reflect the economic performance and the standard of living.
- To calculate HDI, each dimension is normalized on a scale from 0 to 1 and then averaged.
- The final HDI score ranges from 0 (low development) to 1 (high development).
- Norway consistently ranks high on the HDI due to its strong healthcare system, high educational attainment, and robust economy.
- In contrast, countries like Niger face challenges in all three dimensions, resulting in lower HDI scores.
- HDI provides a more holistic view of development than single indicators like GDP, GNP or GNI, but it still has limitations, such as ignoring inequality and environmental sustainability.
- Moreover, a single dimension (e.g. high value of GNI per capita) can distort the value of the entire composite index.
- Finally, the quality and reliability of data especially coming from LICs is questionable.
Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Gender Development Index (GDI): Highlighting Gender Disparities
Both Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Gender Development Index (GDI) use the same methodological framework as HDI and are published by the UNDP.
Gender Inequality Index (GII)
The Gender Inequality Index (GII) is a measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to assess gender disparities in a country.
The Gender Inequality Index (GII) focuses on gender disparities across three dimensions:
- Reproductive Health:
- Maternal Mortality Ratio: Number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.
- Adolescent Birth Rate: Births per 1,000 women aged 15–19.
- Empowerment:
- Educational Attainment: Proportion of males and females with secondary education.
- Proportion of parliamentary seats held by males and females.
- Economic Status:
- Labor Force Participation: Comparison of male and female participation rates.
- Scandinavian countries like Denmark, Iceland, Norway or Sweden rank high on the GII due to low maternal mortality, high female political representation, and strong labor force participation.
- Conversely, countries like Yemen face significant gender disparities, leading to lower GII scores.
- Many students assume the GII directly compares men and women in all aspects.
- However, reproductive health indicators focus solely on women.
Gender Development Index (GDI)
The Gender Development Index (GDI) compares HDI calculated separately for females and males.
- If GDI values are close to 1, it suggests gender equality, if the values are lower than 1, it shows unfavorable conditions for women (Yemen and Afghanistan consistently score the lowest values),
- Values higher than 1 suggest the opposite (e.g. higher HDI for women in countries like Poland, Lithuania, Latvia or Estonia due to higher life expectancy and higher level of education obtained by women).
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI): An Attempt to Capture Poverty Complexity
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is a measure developed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) to assess poverty beyond income-based measures.
- The MPI includes three dimensions:
- Health: nutrition, child mortality.
- Education: years of schooling, school attendance.
- Living Standards: cooking fuel, sanitation, drinking water, electricity, housing, and assets.
All of the mainstream (published by the UNDP) development indicators focus on similar dimensions of human life.
Social Progress Index (SPI): An Alternative Way of Measuring Development
Social Progress Index (SPI)
The Social Progress Index (SPI) is a tool for assessing a country's well being beyond economic indicators.
- It combines 57 social and environmental outcome indicators divided into three categories:
- Basic Needs: nutrition and medical care, water and sanitation, housing, safety.
- Foundations of Wellbeing: basic education, information and communications, health, environmental quality.
- Opportunity: rights and voice, freedom and choice, inclusive society, advanced education.
- None of the indicators used to calculate SPI include direct economic indices like GDP, GNP, or GNI.
- Unlike the UNDP framework (e.g. HDI), SPI includes some indicators related to culture and human rights.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Global Framework
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 17 interconnected goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015.
They address a wide range of issues, including:
- Poverty and Hunger: Eradicating extreme poverty and ensuring food security.
- Health and Education: Promoting well-being and quality education for all.
- Gender Equality: Empowering women and girls.
- Environmental Sustainability: Tackling climate change and preserving ecosystems.
Goal 6 focuses on clean water and sanitation, recognizing that access to safe water is essential for health, education, and economic productivity.
Note- The SDGs are not legally binding, but they serve as a universal blueprint for sustainable development.
- The SDGs are often evaluated as overambitious and unrealistic, especially given the timeframe (2015-2030).
Is there a set of common and objective characteristics of human development shared across cultures?
Critiques of Development Indicators
Validity: Missing Dimensions
- Cultural and Environmental Factors:
- Indicators like HDI and GII often overlook cultural values and environmental sustainability.
- For example, traditional knowledge or community well-being may not be captured by these metrics.
- Narrow Focus:
- Economic indicators may fail to reflect social progress or environmental degradation.
A country with high HDI but severe pollution issues may not truly be “developed” in a sustainable sense.
Reliability: Data Challenges
- Inconsistencies: Data collection methods vary across countries, leading to inconsistencies.
- Incomplete or Missing Data: In low-income countries (LICs), data may be outdated or incomplete, reducing the accuracy of indicators.
When analyzing development data, always consider the source and the context in which it was collected.
Reflection and Broader Implications
- Holistic Understanding: Development is not just about economic growth, it's about improving quality of life, reducing inequalities, and ensuring sustainability.
- Informed Decision-Making: Policymakers use these indicators to identify priorities and allocate resources effectively.
- Global Accountability: Tools like the SDGs create a shared framework for addressing global challenges.
- How do cultural perspectives influence our understanding of development?
- Can a single set of indicators truly capture the diversity of human experiences?
