Independence movements Notes

What Are The Characteristics of Independence Movements?

1. Independence movements are a major driver of historical change, especially in large empires and multi-ethnic states.
2. They can begin as local protests, become armed rebellions, or grow into long conflicts that reshape borders and political legitimacy.

1. In an imperial context, independence movements typically emerge when people in a region believe that:
   1. the imperial government no longer protects their interests, or
   2. the empire's governing systems have become unfair or ineffective, or
   3. local leaders see an opportunity to rule directly.

What's The Overlap Between Rebellions, Civil Wars, and Independence Struggles?

1. Independence movements are often discussed alongside rebellions and civil wars because real conflicts rarely fit neatly into a single category.
2. A useful way to distinguish them is to ask two questions:
   1. Who is fighting whom? (within the same political system, or against an external ruling power)
   2. What is the political aim? (change the ruler, change policy, or leave entirely)

Classifications of conflicts

1. A conflict may begin as a rebellion (protest against taxes, corruption, or repression) and then become an independence movement if separation becomes the only realistic solution.
2. Likewise, a struggle for independence can become a civil war if factions within the independence side fight each other over leadership or ideology.

What's The Link Between Imperial Size and Weak Governance?

1. Large empires face a structural challenge: as territory expands, communication slows and central decision-making becomes less effective.
2. Historians emphasize that empires can fall when core governing systems become inefficient or corrupt, including bureaucracy, the military, the legal system, and communications.

Challenges of imperial size

1. When an empire becomes very large, it often struggles to:
   1. respond quickly to border threats
   2. control ambitious regional commanders
   3. collect taxes consistently
   4. maintain trust in central institutions
2. Local leaders may gain real power simply because the center cannot supervise them effectively.
   1. A common imperial response is to divide territory into semi-autonomous regions.
   2. This can stabilize the empire temporarily, but it can also strengthen regional identities and make eventual separation easier.

Case study

The Roman Empire: Crisis and Breakaway Politics

• The Roman Empire illustrates how large scale and insecurity can destabilise imperial rule.
  • By the third century CE, Rome faced frequent border wars and external pressure.
  • The empire was attacked by groups in the north and faced major rivals in the east.
• Maintaining constant military readiness required huge financial resources and coordination.
  • Slow communication across the empire gave frontier generals significant independence.
  • Some generals were proclaimed emperor by their troops or officials, undermining central authority.
• This led to repeated internal conflict and civil war.
  • During the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE), Rome had around 24 different emperors.
  • Rapid changes in leadership caused political instability.
  • Instability weakened border defence, damaged infrastructure, and forced higher taxation to fund ongoing conflict.
• In response, Diocletian introduced major reforms.
  • The empire was reorganised and divided, splitting rule between east and west.
  • Power was shared between senior and junior emperors, aiming to restore stability and control.

Case study

The Fatimid Caliphate: Rival Legitimacy and Resources

• The Fatimid Caliphate shows how a new, independent political entity can weaken an older imperial centre.
  • It emerged as a rival to the Abbasid Caliphate, creating political, religious, and economic competition.
  • Most Muslims in the Abbasid Empire were Sunni, with Shia as the next largest group.
  • Shia belief held that Islam should be ruled by direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad.
  • This belief challenged Abbasid religious legitimacy, as Abbasid caliphs were not direct descendants.
  • The Fatimids claimed descent from Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter, strengthening their religious authority and legitimacy.
• Economic control was central to Fatimid success.
  • The Fatimids controlled key trade routes linking Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, and traded with China and India.
  • This control allowed wealth and resources to flow into Fatimid territory, strengthening the state.
  • The Fatimids expanded from North Africa into Egypt.
  • They founded Cairo as their capital, increasing political and economic prestige.
  • As territories and resources were lost, the Abbasid treasury weakened.
  • The Abbasid caliph increasingly lost power to generals and regional governors.
  • These leaders taxed their own provinces, governed independently, and sometimes fought one another.
  • This process demonstrates a common imperial fragmentation dynamic.
• Breakaway states gain resources and prestige.
  • The imperial centre loses revenue and authority.
  • Regional leaders become more independent, often leading to further fragmentation.
• Internal Divisions and Instability
  • History also shows that independence does not guarantee stability.
  • The Fatimids were weakened by infighting among groups within their army (Turks, Berbers, Africans), and their decline was accelerated by external pressure (including the Crusaders).
  • Eventually, Egypt was taken over by a Sunni dynasty in 1171 CE, forming the Ayyubid Sultanate and pledging religious loyalty to the Abbasids.

What's The Role of Competing Narratives and Bias?

1. Independence movements are interpreted differently by different groups:
   1. Imperial authorities may label them "rebellions" to deny legitimacy.
   2. Independence leaders may frame their struggle as liberation and restoration of rights.
   3. Local minorities within the breakaway region may disagree about separation.
2. This is why critical thinking matters: you must recognize unstated assumptions, identify bias, and evaluate the reliability of evidence.

How Can You Analyze Independence Movements?

When you are given a conflict (such as those listed above), analyze it systematically.

Step 1: Identify Actors and Levels of Power

1. Determine the imperial center, regional elites, external rivals, and civilian groups.
2. Note whether the conflict involves factions within the ruling system, or a ruled region against the center.

Step 2: State the Aims Using Evidence

1. Look for aims such as:
   1. removing a ruler (often rebellion or civil war)
   2. changing policy (rebellion)
   3. controlling the state (civil war)
   4. creating separate rule (independence movement)

Step 3: Evaluate Conditions That Made the Movement Possible

1. Use categories such as:
   1. breakdown of imperial systems (corruption, inefficiency)
   2. problems of size and slow communication
   3. military overstretch and costs
   4. economic shifts (loss of trade routes and taxation)
   5. religious or ideological challenges to legitimacy

Step 4: Decide if Multiple Labels Apply

Explain your classification, then explicitly consider overlap.