Labour, working conditions and class systems Notes

Labour, Working Conditions and Class Systems in Britain and Japan

1. Before industrialization, most people in Britain and Japan worked in small, family-based settings:
   1. British farmers followed seasonal rhythms.
   2. Japanese peasants worked in rice agriculture and village crafts.
2. Work was slow, flexible, and controlled by households, not bosses.
3. Industrialisation flipped this world upside down.
4. Factories introduced:
   1. Fixed hours (long, exhausting shifts)
   2. Strict supervision
   3. Fast-paced machine work
   4. Wages instead of family labour
5. For ordinary people, this was not just a new workplace: it was a new way of living.

How industrial work changed in Britain

1. Time became controlled by the factory

1. Traditional rural work changed with the seasons. Factory work ran by the clock.
   1. 12–16 hour days
   2. Bells, supervisors, and machines that never “needed a break”
   3. Workers lost control over their pace and timing

2. Evidence from British mills

1. Britain’s textile mills (Lancashire, Manchester) became symbols of harsh conditions:
   1. Hot, humid rooms
   2. Child labour (orphans, pauper apprentices)
   3. Dust-filled air, dangerous machines
   4. Low wages for women and children
2. Factory owners profited; workers struggled.

Case study

1833 Factory Reform Act

• Why it happened
  • Parliament heard evidence of child injuries, illness, and abuse.
  • Reformers like Lord Shaftesbury pushed for action.
• Main rules
  • No children under 9 in mills.
  • Ages 9–13 limited to 12 hours a day.
  • No one under 18 on night shifts.
  • Four inspectors appointed.
• Weaknesses
  • Too few inspectors to monitor factories.
  • False ages given by parents and owners.
  • Poor enforcement of schooling.
  • Very small fines for violations.
• Later improvements
  • 1853 Act set a 10.5-hour workday with breaks.
  • Protections expanded beyond textile mills.
  • Growing acceptance that government should regulate working conditions.
• Long-term impact
  • Helped lead to free education, pensions, healthcare, and wider social reform.

3. Why classes shifted in Britain

1. Industrialization produced new groups:
   1. Industrial capitalists: factory owners, investors, entrepreneurs
   2. Urban working class: machine tenders, spinners, weavers, miners
   3. Middle class: managers, clerks, engineers, shopkeepers
2. Wealth now came from capital and machinery, not land. That reshaped British society.

Case study

The Chartist Movement

• Workers created a reform programme called The People’s Charter (1837).
• They wanted:
  • Votes for all men aged 21+
  • Secret ballots
  • No property requirement for MPs
  • Payment for MPs
  • Equal-sized constituencies
  • General elections every year
• Huge petitions followed:
  • 1839, 1842, 1848: the last had 5 million signatures (some fake like “Queen Victoria” and “No cheese”).
  • Though rejected at the time, most Chartist demands were later implemented.

How industrial work changed in Japan

Japan industrialized later (Meiji era, after 1868), but the transformation was just as dramatic — and sometimes more intense.

1. From samurai + peasants → factory workers

1. Before industrialization:
   1. Rigid hierarchy: samurai, peasants, artisans, merchants
   2. Agriculture dominated village life
   3. Women’s work centred on textiles at home
2. Factories changed this:
   1. Young rural women were recruited into silk-reeling and spinning mills
   2. Many lived in dormitories with strict rules
   3. The pace was fast and repetitive to match new machines

2. Working conditions in Meiji Japan

1. Japanese textile mills became famous: for both innovation and exploitation.
   1. Long hours (often longer than in Britain)
   2. Confined dormitory life
   3. High rates of illness (silk work required humid, hot conditions)
   4. Harsh penalties for mistakes or slow work
2. Many Japanese workers described factory life as feeling like “being locked inside a machine.”

3. Why classes shifted in Japan

1. The Meiji government encouraged industrial capitalism, creating:
   1. Zaibatsu industrial families (Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo)
   2. Urban factory workers (men in heavy industry, women in textiles)
   3. New middle class (teachers, clerks, railway workers)
2. Japan’s industrial classes emerged quickly because the government actively designed a modern workforce.

Case study

The Meiji Reforms

• The Meiji Restoration (1868)
  • Young Emperor Meiji takes power; aims to modernise Japan.
  • Charter Oath promises national debate, end of old customs, and learning from the West.
• Abolition of the Feudal System
  • Daimyo (powerful feudal lords controlling regions) lose their domains; power centralised under the national government.
  • Daimyo compensated → many remain wealthy.
  • Samurai stipends removed; samurai class loses privileges (e.g., 1876 ban on wearing swords).
  • One unified army replaces private regional armies.
• Political Reforms
  • Japan moves toward constitutional monarchy (not full democracy).
  • New constitution (1889):
    • Creates Diet (House of Peers + House of Representatives).
    • Only wealthy male taxpayers can vote (most people excluded).
    • Emperor retains ultimate power.
• Economic Reforms
  • Leaders study Western models in Europe & USA.
  • Invest in railways, shipyards, modern factories.
  • Adopt Western technology and administrative systems → rapid industrial growth.
• Why the Reforms Mattered
  • Modernized Japan quickly.
  • Shifted society from feudal rule to a centralized, industrial state.
  • Built foundations for Japan’s rise as a major world power.

Comparing Britain and Japan

Why did new class structures emerge?

1. Control of new wealth

1. Machines + factories = new sources of profit → owners gained power.

2. Wage labour replaced household labour

1. People no longer worked for their family: they worked for employers.
2. This created a clear divide between bosses and workers.

3. Urbanisation concentrated people

1. Cities put thousands of workers together → strong class identities formed.

4. The state supported industrial elites

1. Britain: protected capitalist property and free markets
2. Japan: government partnered with industrial families

5. Education and new skills created new ranks

1. Engineers, clerks, managers → a new middle class that didn’t exist in pre-industrial society.