International Covenants: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) further codified these rights.
International Humanitarian Law (IHL): IHL limits harm during armed conflict by restricting weapons and tactics that cause unnecessary suffering, such as:
1972: Biological Weapons Convention
1993: Chemical Weapons Convention
2000: Protocol on Rights of the Child in Conflict
Example
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) Article 1,"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights" is considered a world norm because:
It has become a universally accepted moral and legal standard for how individuals should be treated, regardless of nationality, race, or background.
Responsibility to Protect (R2P): A norm that emerged in the early 2000s, emphasizing the international community's duty to prevent mass atrocities.
Case study
Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
R2P is a global norm that holds states and the international community accountable for preventing and responding to mass atrocities.
The Three Pillars of R2P
Pillar I: States must protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity.
Pillar II: The international community should assist states in fulfilling this responsibility.
Pillar III: If a state fails to protect its people, the international community must intervene appropriately (e.g., sanctions, legal action, or force) in line with international law.
Three Core Responsibilities
Prevent: Address both root and immediate causes of mass violence.
React: Respond with proportionate measures, including possible military action.
Rebuild: Support post-crisis recovery, reconciliation, and justice.
3. Sovereignty vs. Intervention
Westphalian Sovereignty: The principle of non-interference in domestic affairs.
When analyzing norms, consider how they balance state sovereignty with global responsibilities.
The Role of International Organizations
United Nations
Human Rights Council: Monitors and promotes human rights globally.
Security Council: Authorizes interventions under R2P in cases of mass atrocities.
Regional Bodies
European Court of Human Rights: Enforces human rights in Europe.
African Union: Incorporates R2P principles in its Constitutive Act.
Example
The African Union's intervention in Burundi in 2015 was based on R2P principles, highlighting the regional adoption of global norms.
Challenges in Implementing Norms
State Sovereignty: Some countries resist norms that infringe on their autonomy.
Cultural Relativism: Different cultural perspectives can lead to disagreements on universal norms.
Enforcement: Lack of binding mechanisms makes it difficult to hold violators accountable.
Common Mistake
Don't assume that all countries interpret norms in the same way. Cultural and political contexts can lead to diverse interpretations.
Case study
R2P in Action: Libya (2011)
Context: In early 2011, during the Arab Spring, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi launched violent crackdowns on protesters in Benghazi, threatening to massacre civilians.
UN Response: The UN Security Council passed Resolution 1973, authorising “all necessary measures” to protect civilians, including a no-fly zone.
Action Taken: NATO forces launched airstrikes to halt Gaddafi’s attacks. This marked the first time R2P was invoked to justify military intervention without the consent of the host state.
Outcome: The intervention protected many civilians in the short term, but it also led to Gaddafi’s fall and a power vacuum that triggered prolonged instability and civil war.
Note
This case highlights the tension between humanitarian intervention and state sovereignty.
Case study
ICC and African States
Focus on Africa: The ICC has largely prosecuted African leaders, leading to accusations of bias and neocolonialism.
Key Example - Sudan: Omar al-Bashir (Sudan) was indicted in 2009 for genocide and war crimes in Darfur. Despite the ICC warrant, he travelled freely in Africa, showing limited enforcement power.
Key Example - Kenya: Uhuru Kenyatta and William Ruto were charged over 2007–08 election violence, but cases collapsed due to lack of evidence and non-cooperation.
AU Response: The African Union accused the ICC of targeting Africa and urged withdrawals. Burundi left the ICC; South Africa threatened to.
ICC’s Defense: Most cases were self-referred by African states, not imposed externally.
Note
Highlights the tension between state sovereignty and international justice, and the politicisation of global legal institutions.
The Future of World Norms
Climate Justice: Recognizing the rights of future generations and vulnerable communities.
Digital Rights: Addressing privacy and freedom of expression in the digital age.
Adaptive Norms: Norms must evolve to address new global challenges while balancing diverse cultural and political contexts.
Active recall
Identify two key world norms related to rights and justice.
How have these norms evolved over time, and what challenges do they face today?
Exam technique
Paper 1 (Source-Based, 1h15m, 25 marks)
For Q1 (3m), identify the historical developments or milestones in rights standards mentioned in the source.
For Q2 (4m), explain how the source shows rights standards evolving - link to norm cascades, treaty expansion, or new rights claims.
For Q3 (6m), compare how sources present the evolution - one as progress, another as stalled, regressive, or Western-dominated.
For Q4 (12m), evaluate whether global rights standards have genuinely improved human wellbeing, using sources AND historical evidence.
Paper 2 (Extended Essay, 1h45m, 30 marks)
Section A: Trace the evolution through specific treaties, declarations, and turning points with concrete dates and impacts.
Section B: Connect to themes like decolonization, globalization, or rising authoritarianism.
Top band (13-15) requires diverse perspectives - progress narrative vs. critical/post-colonial accounts of rights evolution.
Paper 3 - HL Only (Stimulus-Based, 1h30m, 28 marks)
For Q1 (3m), analyse how the stimulus shows the current state of rights standards evolution.
For Q2b (6m), recommend next steps for rights development while addressing backlash and implementation gaps.
For Q3 (15m), synthesize case studies to assess whether rights standards are converging or fragmenting globally.
