Interactions of political stakeholders and actors Questionbank

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Excerpt from "Urbanization and Sustainability: A Global Perspective" (2022)

Urbanization is now a central feature of global development, with more than 55% of the world’s population residing in cities. Although urban areas serve as hubs for economic growth and innovation, they are also responsible for 70% of global greenhouse gas emissions. As cities continue to expand, they face unique sustainability challenges, particularly in developing countries.

In many rapidly growing cities, infrastructure such as transportation, sanitation, and waste management lags behind population growth. This often leads to high levels of air and water pollution, traffic congestion, and the proliferation of informal settlements, where residents may lack access to clean water, reliable energy, or safe housing. Environmental degradation in urban settings can also exacerbate social inequalities, making it more difficult for the urban poor to improve their living conditions.

To address these issues, sustainable urban planning is essential. Strategies such as investing in green building technologies, expanding and improving public transportation, and integrating green spaces are considered vital for balancing development and environmental protection. Urban planners are increasingly urged to adopt holistic approaches that prioritize both economic growth and social equity, ensuring that urbanization contributes to sustainable development for all city dwellers.

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Adapted from "The Water Crisis: A Barrier to Development" (2021)

Access to clean water remains one of the most pressing barriers to sustainable development worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), over 2 billion people lack reliable access to safe drinking water, the vast majority of whom live in developing regions. This scarcity not only affects health and well-being but also hinders educational attainment, economic productivity, and gender equality.

Climate change is intensifying the water crisis by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency and severity of droughts, and depleting freshwater supplies. In many areas, shrinking rivers, lakes, and aquifers threaten food security and fuel migration and conflict over remaining resources. Political and economic factors further complicate efforts to resolve water shortages, with disputes over transboundary water sources common in regions such as Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East.

Privatization of water resources can sometimes lead to increased costs and reduced access for the poorest communities, sparking protests and social unrest. Sustainable water management, through investments in infrastructure, technology, and international cooperation, is increasingly recognized as essential for achieving long-term development goals and climate resilience.

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Excerpt from "The Role of Youth Movements in Climate Action" (2023)

Youth-led climate movements have become a defining force in global sustainability debates. Initiatives such as Fridays for Future, spearheaded by students and young activists worldwide, have mobilized millions to demand urgent climate action from governments and businesses. These movements emphasize the need to limit global warming, phase out fossil fuels, and transition to renewable energy sources.

Young activists frequently hold leaders accountable for failing to meet sustainability targets, using social media and mass protests to draw international attention to the climate emergency. Their campaigns often highlight the disproportionate impact of climate change on future generations, the Global South, and marginalized communities.

However, critics of youth movements question the practicality of their demands, especially for economies reliant on fossil fuel industries or with limited financial resources. Skeptics argue that rapid transitions could threaten jobs and economic stability in certain regions. Despite these challenges, youth-led initiatives continue to influence policy debates, pushing for more ambitious national and international climate commitments, and ensuring that the voices of young people are central to discussions about the planet’s future.

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Adapted from "Urbanization and Sustainability: A Global Perspective," Global Development Review (2022)

Urbanization is transforming societies across the globe. Over half of the world’s population now lives in cities, which are hubs of economic growth and opportunity. However, the benefits of urbanization are unequally shared. Cities in the Global South often face critical challenges: inadequate housing, poor sanitation, and congested transport systems. Informal settlements, home to more than 1 billion people, lack basic infrastructure and services, reinforcing cycles of poverty.

This inequality has environmental consequences. Urban areas account for 70% of greenhouse gas emissions and suffer disproportionately from air and water pollution, which affect the urban poor most severely. The report argues that sustainable urban development must prioritize access to affordable housing, clean energy, and efficient public transport for marginalized populations. Without targeted policies, the expansion of cities will deepen social divides and undermine global efforts to achieve sustainability.

Successful examples include Curitiba, Brazil, where integrated transport planning has improved mobility for low-income residents, and Singapore, which has invested in public housing and green spaces to enhance equity and urban resilience.

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Adapted from "The Water Crisis: A Barrier to Development," World Health Organization (2021)

Access to clean water remains a major global challenge, closely linked to inequality. The World Health Organization reports that 2 billion people lack safe drinking water, with the majority living in the world’s poorest regions. Climate change is expected to worsen this crisis, disrupting rainfall patterns and reducing the reliability of freshwater supplies.

The report highlights how water scarcity exacerbates poverty, undermines health, and limits educational and economic opportunities, particularly for women and girls who often bear responsibility for water collection. The privatization of water resources and conflicts over transboundary water sources further deepen existing inequalities.

Efforts to improve water access require both local and global action: investment in water infrastructure, support for community-led solutions, and the integration of water management into climate adaptation policies. The WHO calls for international cooperation and equitable resource allocation to ensure that access to clean water is treated as a fundamental human right rather than a privilege of the wealthy.

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Adapted from "Climate Finance: Where Are We Now?" OECD (2023)

The issue of climate finance highlights the persistent divide between wealthy and poorer countries in addressing global sustainability. Developed nations pledged to provide $100 billion annually to support developing countries in climate mitigation and adaptation, but this target has not been met.

According to the OECD, only $83 billion was delivered in 2021, much of it as loans rather than grants. Developing countries argue that inadequate financial support limits their ability to invest in renewable energy, resilient infrastructure, and poverty reduction, forcing them to prioritize short-term needs over long-term sustainability. Critics contend that failure to deliver promised finance undermines global trust and jeopardizes the effectiveness of international climate agreements.

The report urges wealthier countries to scale up grants, strengthen technology transfer, and support capacity building. Without greater and more equitable financial support, global progress toward sustainable development goals will remain slow, and the most vulnerable populations will continue to bear the brunt of climate change and environmental degradation.

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Adapted from “The Role of Mediation in Conflict Resolution,” United Nations Mediation Support Unit, www.un.org (2018).

Mediation has become a central approach for resolving both interstate and intrastate conflicts in today’s world. The United Nations emphasizes that effective mediation depends on several core principles: the neutrality of mediators, the building of trust among conflicting parties, and the inclusion of all key stakeholders in negotiations.

A prominent example occurred during Kenya’s 2008 post-election crisis, when violence erupted over disputed election results. The African Union, with former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan as chief mediator, succeeded in brokering a power-sharing agreement that prevented further bloodshed and restored stability. This case is often cited as a demonstration of mediation’s capacity to de-escalate crises and create space for dialogue.

However, mediation is rarely straightforward. The process faces major hurdles, including the reluctance of parties to make meaningful concessions, spoilers seeking to undermine progress, and interference by external actors with their own agendas. Furthermore, a lack of deep understanding of the historical, political, and cultural roots of a conflict can limit the effectiveness of mediation efforts. The UN stresses the need for robust support to mediators, ongoing monitoring, and the adaptation of strategies to local realities to increase the prospects for achieving a durable peace.

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Adapted from “The Human Cost of War,” Amnesty International, www.amnesty.org (2021).

Modern conflicts inflict devastating consequences on civilian populations, causing widespread displacement, civilian casualties, and gross human rights abuses. Yemen’s ongoing war, which began in 2015, exemplifies the toll of protracted violence. The UN has called Yemen the world’s worst humanitarian crisis, with millions of people facing hunger, disease, and limited access to basic necessities like healthcare and clean water.

According to Amnesty International, all sides in the conflict—including Houthi forces and the Saudi-led coalition—have been accused of violations such as indiscriminate bombings, use of banned weapons, and targeting of civilian infrastructure. This has led to large-scale displacement, trauma, and the breakdown of families and communities. Despite repeated international efforts to negotiate ceasefires and improve humanitarian access, the parties’ repeated violations of agreements demonstrate the fragility of peace efforts. Amnesty International calls for greater international accountability and stronger enforcement of humanitarian law.

The report argues that the global community has a duty to protect civilians, ensure aid reaches those in need, and hold perpetrators to account, warning that the absence of such measures perpetuates suffering and instability in conflict zones like Yemen.

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Adapted from “The Dilemma of Humanitarian Intervention,” Jayshree Bajoria and Robert McMahon, Council on Foreign Relations, www.cfr.org (2013).

The escalating violence and humanitarian disaster in Syria have reignited debate over the legitimacy and effectiveness of humanitarian interventions by the international community. The “responsibility to protect” (R2P) doctrine, adopted by the UN in 2005, was intended to provide a framework for intervention when states fail to protect their citizens from mass atrocities.

In practice, however, R2P has become contentious. The 2011 intervention in Libya, where a UN-mandated coalition carried out airstrikes to protect civilians from Muammar Qaddafi’s forces, is often cited as a turning point. While the intervention contributed to the fall of Qaddafi, it was widely criticized—especially by Russia and China—as going beyond civilian protection and being used as cover for regime change. The aftermath of Libya’s collapse led to instability in the region and skepticism about future interventions.

In Syria, despite mounting evidence of atrocities, Security Council divisions and fears of repeating the Libyan experience have paralyzed decisive action. Experts argue that concerns about sovereignty, great power rivalry, and the unintended consequences of intervention now make global support for humanitarian military action less likely, even in the face of grave human rights abuses.