Absolute poverty refers to a condition where people do not have enough resources to secure the basic essentials for survival, including food, safe water, shelter, and healthcare. It is measured against a fixed threshold such as the World Bank’s $2.15 per day standard.

Bias refers to a systematic preference or inclination that shapes how theories are constructed and applied.

Catalysts are factors or events that accelerate or trigger change, often speeding up existing processes or tensions without necessarily being the root cause. In politics, catalysts can intensify conflicts, reforms, or social movements.

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) are non-state actors that operate independently of governments and businesses.

Collective rights are the rights held by groups of people, often tied to their shared identity, culture, or history, such as Indigenous peoples’ rights to land or the right of minority groups to preserve their language and traditions.

Conflict is a central theme in global politics, encompassing a wide range of disputes and tensions that arise between individuals, groups, and states. It is essential to understand the different types of conflict to analyze their causes, dynamics, and potential resolutions.

Conflict is a disagreement or clash between individuals, groups, or states over incompatible goals, values, or resources. It can occur at various levels, from personal disputes to international wars.

Conflict is a fundamental aspect of global politics, arising when two or more parties perceive their goals, values, or interests as incompatible. It can occur at various levels, from interpersonal disputes to international wars.

Conflict dynamics refer to the patterns and processes that shape how conflicts emerge, escalate, and resolve. These dynamics are influenced by a complex interplay of factors at local, national, and global levels.

Conflict prevention involves proactive measures to address the root causes of conflict before they escalate into violence.

Conflict resolution is the process of addressing the underlying causes of conflict and finding mutually acceptable solutions. Common methods include negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and peacekeeping.

Conflict transformation is a broader approach that seeks to change the relationships, structures, and dynamics that sustain conflict. Its focus is on long-term peacebuilding, reconciliation, and social justice.

A critical theory that challenges realism and liberalism. Argues that global politics is socially constructed through norms, beliefs, identities, and discourse. Rejects the idea of a single objective reality, what matters is how we interpret and give meaning to things.

Cultural and ideational factors are the beliefs, values, norms, traditions, and ideas that shape how societies and individuals think and behave. These factors influence political, social, and economic life by framing what people see as acceptable, legitimate, or desirable. For example, religious beliefs shaping laws on marriage, social norms influencing gender roles, or nationalist ideologies driving independence movements are all cultural and ideational factors.

Norms, values, and ideologies that justify or legitimize violence such as racism, sexism, religious intolerance.

Cyberpower refers to the use of cyberspace, including the internet, computer networks, digital devices, and information technology, to create advantages and influence events. It includes activities such as cyber warfare, cyber diplomacy, and cyber espionage.

Deterrence focuses on discouraging potential aggressors through the threat of retaliation or punishment.

Development refers to the process of improving the economic, social, and political well-being of people.

Development refers to the process of improving the quality of life and well-being of people, often measured through economic growth, education, health, equality, and access to basic needs.

Physical harm or force inflicted on individuals or groups, such as war and torture.

External sovereignty refers to a state’s ability to act independently in international affairs—outside its borders. It reflects how much power a state has when interacting with other states and global actors.

Critiques liberalism and realism for ignoring the experiences of women in global politics. Emphasizes patriarchy, the idea that systems are structured to benefit men and exclude women from power.

Formal forums are structured and institutionalized, often with legal or binding authority. They include international organizations, treaties, and summits.

Global governance refers to the framework of rules, institutions, and processes that guide international cooperation and decision-making.

Global governance refers to the coordinated efforts of states, international organizations, and non-state actors to address transnational issues that no single nation can solve alone.

A global norm is a shared expectation about what is considered acceptable behaviour by states and other actors.

Refers to economically and industrially advanced countries, generally located north of less developed nations.

Refers to countries with lower levels of economic and industrial development, typically found south of more developed nations.

Process of increasing global interconnectedness through trade, investment, culture, technology, and population movement. Complex interdependence (Nye).

Hard power refers to the use of coercion or force to achieve political objectives.

Hard power refers to the use of military and economic means to influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies. It is often associated with coercion, where one actor imposes its will on another through force or the threat of force.

Humanitarian intervention refers to the use of military force by one or more states in another state without the latter's consent, with the primary aim of preventing or stopping widespread suffering or human rights abuses.

Humanitarian stakeholders are individuals, organizations, and institutions involved in providing aid and relief during crises such as natural disasters, conflicts, and pandemics.

Individual rights are the freedoms and entitlements held by each person, such as freedom of speech, the right to privacy, and the right to a fair trial, which protect individuals from interference by the state or others.

Inequality refers to the uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, and power among individuals, groups, or nations.

Informal forums are flexible and adaptive, often lacking legal or binding authority. They facilitate dialogue, consensus-building, and innovation.

Interaction in global governance refers to the dynamic relationships between actors as they negotiate, implement, and enforce policies.

Interdependence refers to the mutual reliance between actors in the international system, such as states, organizations, and individuals.

Interest groups are organizations that seek to influence public policy to benefit their members or advance a specific cause.

IGOs are entities created by sovereign states to facilitate cooperation on specific issues.

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) are formal institutions made up of two or more states that work together on common issues such as peace, security, trade, or the environment. They are established through treaties and operate under international law, meaning member states are legally bound by the organization’s rules.

Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) are formal institutions made up of two or more states that work together on common issues such as peace, security, trade, or the environment. They are established through treaties and operate under international law, meaning member states are legally bound by the organization’s rules.

Internal sovereignty is the state’s absolute authority within its borders. A state with strong internal sovereignty has control over its population, power to make and enforce laws, and public acceptance of the state's authority.

International Financial Institutions (IFIs) are a specific type of IGO focused on economic and financial issues. They play a vital role in stabilizing economies, promoting development, and facilitating international trade.

International law is a body of rules, norms, and principles that govern the relationships and interactions between states, international organizations, and, in some cases, individuals. It is designed to promote peace, security, cooperation, and justice on a global scale.

International laws are agreements and treaties made between states, often under organisations like the UN. Their purpose is to promote peace, cooperation, and global security.

Justice refers to the fair and equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and punishments within a society.

Justice refers to the fair and equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and treatment.

State legitimacy refers to the perceived right of a state to exercise authority and govern its people. It is a foundational concept in global politics, as it determines the stability, effectiveness, and acceptance of a government both domestically and internationally.

Legitimacy refers to the perceived justification or acceptability of an action, decision, or institution.

Liberalism is a major theory of global politics, seen as a response to realism. It emphasizes cooperation, interdependence, and the role of non-state actors. Unlike realism, it sees the international system as capable of change and progress.

Marginalization occurs when individuals or groups are pushed to the edges of society, denied equal opportunities, or excluded from decision-making processes.

Monitoring involves tracking and evaluating the implementation of rights and justice frameworks.

Multidimensional poverty refers to poverty that goes beyond just income levels, capturing multiple deprivations people face in their daily lives. It includes limited access to education, healthcare, clean water and sanitation, housing, and basic living standards.

Multinational Companies (MNCs) operate in multiple countries but maintain a strong centralized headquarters in their home country.

Based on Karl Marx's theory, but applied to global systems. Focuses on class conflict, not just within states but between wealthy and poor countries. Emphasizes how capitalism and global economic structures create inequality and dependency.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are a subset of CSOs that focus on specific issues, often with a global reach.

NGOs are part of civil society but often more structured, they operate independently from governments. Work to solve global/local issues (poverty, health, education, human rights, environment).

NGOs are non-profit, independent of governments, and aim to help people or promote causes. Can operate at local, national, regional, or global levels. Share similarities with civil society groups but often more structured or professionalized.

Non-state actors (NSAs) are entities that operate independently of state control.

Non-violence is a political strategy and ethical philosophy that rejects the use of physical force to achieve political, social, or economic goals. It is rooted in the belief that violence perpetuates cycles of oppression and conflict, while non-violence can transform relationships and systems.

Non-violent conflict refers to disputes and struggles where parties seek to achieve their goals without using physical force.

Civil society = groups/organizations not linked to government. Often have a shared purpose and may challenge societal problems, policies, or attitudes.

Peacebuilding is about developing positive peace to reduce the chances of future conflict. It includes efforts at all stages, from stopping war to rebuilding society.

Peacekeeping is a critical tool in international relations, designed to maintain peace and security in regions affected by conflict. It involves the deployment of multinational forces to stabilize areas, support ceasefires, and create conditions for lasting peace.

These are situations where individuals or groups believe they have been treated unfairly, even if no formal rights have been violated. This can include economic inequality, political exclusion, or social discrimination.

Political forums are platforms where actors engage in dialogue, negotiation, and decision-making. They can be formal or informal, each serving distinct but complementary roles in global politics.

Forums = Meetings for actors to discuss/debate political issues.

A political issue involves how power is distributed and exercised in the real world. It affects people's lives, communities, and the broader society. Political issues aren't limited to politicians or governments, they appear in everyday life (e.g. healthcare, education, taxes, laws, social media).

Political leaders are people who lead and make key decisions on behalf of a state or community. They may be in charge at different levels such as national, regional, or local. Some are elected by the people, while others are appointed by political parties or inherit power.

Political parties are groups of people who share ideas about how a country should be governed. Their main goal is to gain and hold political power.

When actors use rights language for political gain rather than genuine concern for justice.

Focuses on the lasting impact of colonialism and imperialism on global politics. Argues that Western forms of knowledge and power continue to marginalize non-Western societies. Sees global politics as shaped by race, culture, and discourse, not just economics or state power.

Power is the ability to influence or control the behavior of others to achieve desired outcomes.

Power is about achieving outcomes – the “end product.” It refers to an actor’s ability to influence outcomes or another actor’s behaviour.

Power asymmetry refers to a situation where power, resources, or influence are distributed unequally between actors, giving one side a significant advantage over the other. This imbalance can shape relationships, negotiations, and conflicts. For example, developed countries dominating trade rules over developing countries, employers holding more bargaining power than workers, or a majority group controlling political institutions over minorities are all cases of power asymmetry.

When one actor has control or dominance over another.

When one actor has control over another, forcing or coercing them into action.

The ability of an actor to carry out an action independently.

The ability of an actor to independently accomplish a task or goal.

The ability of a group to work cooperatively toward a common objective.

Cooperative power – when a group works together to achieve a goal.

Pressure groups are a type of interest group that actively lobbies (seeks to influence) government decisions.

Private actors are individuals or groups not formally part of the government but who have the power to influence society and drive change.

Private companies are businesses separate from government control, typically driven by profit.

Protection involves ensuring that codified rights are respected and enforced.

Proximate causes are the immediate or direct factors that trigger a problem or event, as opposed to the deeper systemic roots. They are the short-term, surface-level causes that make an issue visible. For example, a drought causing food shortages, a government policy change sparking protests, or an outbreak of violence after an election can all be considered proximate causes.

A major theory in global politics focused on power and the idea that international relations are shaped by conflict and self-interest.

Relational power focuses on the dynamics between specific actors, emphasizing contextual and situational factors.

Relative poverty describes a situation where people possess fewer resources than the average in their society, which restricts their ability to take part fully in normal social and economic activities. It highlights inequality within a specific context rather than survival itself.

Resistance movements are organized efforts by groups or individuals to oppose and challenge existing power structures, policies, or social norms. They can take various forms, from peaceful protests to armed rebellions, and often arise in response to perceived injustices or oppression.

Groups seeking change, often challenging government laws, policies, or leadership. Seen as more confrontational than social movements. May involve structural power change.

Rights are entitlements or permissions that individuals or groups have, often protected by law or moral principles.

Rights are fundamental entitlements or freedoms that individuals possess, often considered essential for dignity, equality, and justice.

Rights are entitlements or freedoms that individuals or groups possess, often protected by law or moral principles.

Smart power is the strategic combination of hard and soft power to achieve foreign policy goals.

Social movements are organized, collective efforts aimed at promoting or resisting change in society. They often emerge in response to perceived injustices or unmet needs and can operate at local, national, or global levels.

Groups sharing common concerns about how society functions. Aim to change attitudes, laws, and behaviours. They can form spontaneously and often lack formal structure.

Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through attraction and persuasion, rather than coercion.

Soft power is the ability of a state or actor to influence others through attraction and persuasion rather than coercion or force. It comes from cultural appeal, political values, and diplomacy. For example, Hollywood films shaping global perceptions of the U.S., Japan’s global influence through anime and technology culture, or the European Union promoting human rights norms are expressions of soft power.

Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through appeal and attraction rather than coercion. It is about setting agendas and attracting others to your values and culture.

Sovereignty is a foundational concept in global politics, referring to the authority of a state to govern itself without external interference.

Sovereignty means a state's independence and control over its territory. States are expected to govern effectively, make decisions within their borders and control what happens inside their territory.

State legitimacy refers to the perceived right of a state to exercise authority and the acceptance of its rule by its population and the international community.

Structural causes are the deep-rooted, systemic factors within the social, economic, and political structures of society that create and sustain problems such as poverty, inequality, and conflict. They arise from the way institutions, policies, and power relations are organized. For example, unequal land ownership, discriminatory laws, and global trade imbalances are structural causes that perpetuate poverty and inequality.

Structural power refers to the ability to shape the framework within which global politics operates.

Structural power refers to the ability to shape the frameworks within which global politics operates. It influences how states, institutions, and individuals interact by setting the rules, norms, and structures that govern these interactions.

Systemic inequalities embedded in social, economic, and political structures such as poverty, discrimination, lack of access to healthcare.

Supranational institutions (e.g. the EU or UN) involve states working together to make collective decisions. These bodies can override individual states’ choices in some areas.

Sustainability refers to meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainability refers to the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Sustainability ensures that development meets present needs without compromising future generations.

Brundtland Commission defines it as: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." Other definitions emphasize the need to balance economic growth, social well-being, and environmental protection.

Transnational companies (TNCs), also known as multinational companies (MNCs), are businesses that start in one country but expand to operate in two or more countries. In today’s globalised world, some large TNCs are seen as having more power than governments. Because of their global influence, TNCs are considered by some to be a threat to traditional state sovereignty, as they can challenge a state's control over its economy and society.

Transnational Companies (TNCs) operate across borders with a more decentralized structure, allowing local subsidiaries to make decisions.

Triggers are specific events or actions that ignite or escalate conflicts, while catalysts are factors that accelerate these processes.

These occur when fundamental human rights are ignored, restricted, or abused. Examples include torture, arbitrary detention, and discrimination.

Vulnerability refers to the increased risk of harm or disadvantage due to specific factors such as poverty, discrimination, or lack of access to resources.

World norms are shared expectations and standards that guide the behavior of states and other actors in the international system.