A lever where the fulcrum is between the effort and the load. For example, a seesaw or a pair of scissors.

A lever where the load is between the effort and the fulcrum. For example, a wheelbarrow.

A lever where the effort is between the fulcrum and the load. For example, tweezers and most human limbs (like your forearm) are 3rd-class levers.

The process of using 3D printing to create objects that can change shape or properties when exposed to a stimulus like water, air, heat, or electric current.

5D printing is a layer-by-layer printing process like 3D printing, but with a rotating extruder head that can print along 5 axes, allowing for stronger and more complex shapes.

The fifth generation of mobile network technology, offering faster speeds, lower latency, and greater connectivity than previous generations.

Abrading is a process of wearing away a material’s surface by rubbing it with another material, often to smooth, shape, or clean it.

Components that control the flow of electricity and can amplify signals or switch currents, such as transistors and diodes.

Additive manufacturing involves techniques that build objects by adding material layer by layer.

The act of sticking or bonding materials together, often using an adhesive like glue.

Adjustability is the ability of a product to change in size or form to suit a wider range of user sizes or percentiles, improving comfort, fit, and usability.

A high-fidelity, non-functional model used to represent the final appearance.

An electronic system that has a permanently variable signal.

A basic digital logic gate that gives a high output (1) only when all inputs are high (1). It has two or more inputs and one output.

An electrochemical process that creates a thick oxidized coating on the surface of a metal component, usually aluminium or its alloys, to improve durability and appearance.

Measurement of the human physical dimensions (e.g., height, arm length, reach), collected as static or dynamic data and often expressed in percentile ranges.

A volume production process where products move continuously along a conveyor, with components added at each workstation until the final product is assembled.

Attract refers to how a product catches the user’s attention and creates a strong first impression.

The ACT Model is a framework used to design products that intentionally trigger emotional responses and improve how users relate to and experience a product. It includes three stages: Attract – aesthetics, Converse – interaction, and Transact – function.

A technology that overlays digital information or models onto the real world, usually through a phone, tablet, or AR glasses.

A volume production process where machines are controlled by computers, allowing for high efficiency and minimal human input.

A limited-volume production process where a set number of items are made in groups or batches.

A linkage that converts vertical motion into horizontal motion, or the other way around.

A belt transfers power between at least two pulleys — the driver pulley moves the belt, and the driven pulley is moved by it.

Bending is a forming process that deforms material along a straight axis to create a specific angle or curve without removing material.

A force that causes a material to curve, involving both tension (on one side) and compression (on the opposite side).

A load applied at a distance from a fixed point, causing a material to bend.

A pair of toothed rotating gears that transfer power between intersecting shafts, usually at a 90° angle.

A structured list of all components, parts, and materials, often including quantities, part numbers, and descriptions.

A binary digit has either a value of 0 or 1. These values correspond to on and off signals in electronic circuits.

A biomaterial is any material that is produced by or originates from biological organisms, such as plants, animals, bacteria, or fungi.

A material that breaks down naturally into basic substances through microorganisms, given the right conditions of moisture, oxygen, temperature, and nutrients.

Biomaterials are materials derived from natural sources or engineered to be compatible with biological systems.

Research and analysis of the mechanics (operation of our muscles, joints,
tendons, etc.) of the human body.

Blow moulding is a manufacturing process where air is used to expand heated plastic inside a mould, forming hollow objects like bottles and containers.

A wireless communication standard for short-range data exchange between electronic devices, such as phones, speakers, and computers.

A logic-based mathematical system where variables are either “true” (1) or “false” (0), used to analyse and design digital circuits.

A mechanical part that converts rotational motion into linear motion.

A rigid structure that is fixed on one end and extends horizontally without support on the other.

An electronic component that stores and releases electrical energy by holding an electric charge between two conductive plates.

Casting is the process of creating an object by pouring molten material into a mould, where it solidifies into the desired shape.

Chemical properties are characteristics that describe how a material reacts with other substances, resulting in a change in its chemical composition.

A chemical property is a characteristic of a material that only becomes noticeable during or after a chemical reaction.

Circuit diagrams are visual representations of electronic circuits, using symbols for components and lines to show connections.

The circular economy is an economic model where resources are kept in use for as long as possible, allowing for the maximum value to be extracted while they are in use. At the end of a product’s life, materials are recovered and regenerated, reducing waste and supporting sustainable design and production.

A circular economy is an economic model where resources are kept in use for as long as possible, extracting maximum value during their life, and then recovering and regenerating products and materials at the end of their life cycle.

The physical space between two objects.

A closed-loop system uses feedback to adjust its output, ensuring it meets the desired criteria.

An upright pillar typically used to support beams in structures.

A material comprised of two or more materials to improve their physical,
mechanical and chemical properties and/or aesthetics characteristics.

A system combining fixed and movable pulleys to reduce effort and increase mechanical advantage, making it easier to lift heavy loads.

A force that squeezes a material or causes it to shorten.

The ability of a material to withstand forces that try to squash or compress it without breaking or deforming.

CAD (Computer Aided Design) refers to the use of computer software to create, modify, and communicate design ideas with precision.

A manufacturing system that uses computers to integrate production, business, and manufacturing processes, creating more efficient and automated production lines.

The use of software to assist in the design process, allowing for precise and efficient creation of digital models.

A design stimulus triggered by dissatisfaction with a product or process, motivating the designer to rethink, redesign, or solve the problem in a new way.

A production method where materials are manufactured or processed without interruption, allowing for constant output.

A beam that is supported at more than two points along its length.

How the user interacts with the product and receives feedback.

The ability of a material to resist damage caused by oxidation (like rust) or other chemical reactions with substances such as water, acids, or salts.

A design philosophy that aims to eliminate waste by creating products that are fully reusable or recyclable, so they can be made to be made again.

A design philosophy that considers a product’s environmental impact from manufacture to disposal.

A small-scale production process that relies on manual skills to make individual or custom products.

The flow of electric charge through a circuit, caused by the movement of electrically charged particles, such as electrons. Measured in amperes (A)

Cutting is the removal of material by applying force that shears or fractures the workpiece.

The product is made from natural or recyclable materials that can be safely returned to the environment or reused in a closed-loop system, without creating waste.

Clearly articulate the design challenge based on user insights.

The reduction of total material and energy throughput of any product and
service.

Statistical data that groups users based on characteristics such as age, gender, income, education, and occupation, often used to identify and understand target audiences in design.

The mass per unit volume of a material (usually measured in kg/m³ or g/cm³). Its a measure of mass divided by volume (ρ = m/V)

Designing a product to simplify how parts fit together, including joining components, forming subassemblies, and building the final product efficiently.

Designing a product so it can be easily and cost-effectively taken apart, allowing components to be reused or repaired and materials to be recycled.

Designing a product so it can be easily and cost-effectively taken apart, allowing components to be reused or repaired and materials to be recycled.

A design approach that ensures products work well for users at the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles, covering the smallest to largest range of users.

A design approach where products are created for optimal use of existing manufacturing capabilities, improving efficiency and ease of production.

Designing a product specifically to suit a particular manufacturing method, such as injection moulding, to ensure efficient and cost-effective production.

A design specification is a detailed list of requirements, constraints, and important considerations that a product must meet.

Develop the intended solution through iterative model–test–refine cycles.

Virtual representations of human bodies used to simulate real users interacting with a product or environment.

An electronic system that uses binary signals, i.e. 0 or 1, on or off.

An electronic component that allows current to flow in only one direction, acting like a one-way valve in a circuit.

The ability of a material to be stretched, drawn, or extruded into a long, thin shape such as a wire, without breaking.

Dynamic anthropometric data are body measurements taken when a person is in motion, such as during walking, reaching, or bending.

A moving force acting on structures, often caused by wind, vehicles, or other external motion.

A usability objective that measures the speed and accuracy with which users can perform the intended task of a product.

The product is designed to use minimal energy and materials during production and use, aiming for a significant improvement in efficiency (e.g. by a factor of 4 or more).

The ability of a material to return to its original shape after being stretched, compressed, or deformed, once the force is removed.

Electrical conductivity is a measure of how easily electricity flows through a material. It is the inverse of resistivity

Measures how much a material resists the flow of electricity.

Electro-rheostatic (ER) fluids are special liquids that can quickly become thicker or more solid when an electric field is applied. When the electricity is turned off, they go back to being a normal liquid. This makes them useful in things like shock absorbers and brakes.

A process that uses an electric current to trigger a chemical reaction, forming a metal coating on the surface of a product.

A computerised system designed to perform a specific set of tasks within a larger device, often with real-time control and limited user interaction.

Discover the needs, motivations, behaviours, and experiences of the intended user.

Empathy means seeing through the user’s eyes, understanding their frustrations, preferences, and behaviours.

A state of balance where equal and opposite forces act on a system.

Ergonomics is the relationship and interaction between people (aspects of the human body) and the products, systems, and environments they use.

A usability objective that measures the number, frequency, and severity of mistakes users make when using a product.

The process of assessing a design against specific criteria such as user needs, functionality, and aesthetics to determine its effectiveness and success.

A device or method used to secure one material to another, such as screws, nails, or clips.

Physical or mental exhaustion during repetitive or prolonged tasks.

A process where the output of a system is returned as input, helping to adjust or control the system and create a closed-loop.

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A first-hand observation of users conducted in their real environment.

Finishing techniques are processes used to finalise a surface to allow bonding, improve aesthetics, or increase durability.

A computerised simulation method that breaks down a model into small elements to analyse how it responds to physical forces.

A member in a structure that is fixed on both ends to supports.

A pulley that is attached to a fixed support and changes the direction of force without altering the mechanical advantage.

A measure of how easily and quickly a material can be ignited and how fast it burns once on fire.

A visual representation of actions and decisions in a sequence, showing how a system progresses toward an outcome.

A mechanical component that moves in response to a cam’s shape, converting rotary motion into linear (reciprocating) motion.

A force diagram (or free-body diagram) shows all the forces acting on a structure or object. These include applied loads, reactions at supports, and internal forces like tension and compression.

Factors affecting strength when compressing, pushing, pulling, twisting, or squeezing an object.

Forming techniques are mechanical processes that reshape material without adding or removing it. Examples include extrusion, stamping, bending, and injection moulding.

A model that encourages designers to create for pleasure and emotional impact. It identifies four types of pleasure: socio-pleasure, physio-pleasure, psycho-pleasure, ideo-pleasure.

The point where a material breaks after reaching its stress and strain limits, beyond elastic and plastic deformation.

A structure made of beams and columns that can support its own weight without needing an outer shell.

The rate at which an electrical signal alternates between positive and negative per second, measured in hertz (Hz).

Functional obsolescence occurs when a product wears out or breaks down over time and can no longer perform its original function. This can happen if replacement parts or essential services are no longer available, making the product unusable even if it's physically intact.

FDM (Fused Deposition Modeling) is a 3D printing method that builds models by depositing melted material in layers onto a bed.

A finishing process that applies a protective layer of zinc to steel or iron to prevent rusting.

A toothed wheel that meshes with another to transmit motion or change speed/direction.

A hard, brittle and typically transparent amorphous solid made by rapidly
cooling a fusion of sand, soda and lime.

Grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive wheels to achieve precise dimensions and smooth surface finishes.

Haptic feedback is the use of touch-based responses, such as vibrations or pressure, to provide physical sensations during interaction with a device.

Technology that simulates the sense of touch by applying vibrations, forces, or motions to the user.

The ability of a material to resist scratching, indentation, or penetration.

Detailed, realistic models that closely mimic the look, feel, and functionality of the final product. Can be digital (interactive) or physical (functional).

A combination of manufacturing methods used to produce a component, often blending manual, mechanised, and automated processes.

A chemical property that describes a material’s ability to absorb moisture from the surrounding air.

Ideation is the process of generating multiple, diverse ideas to solve a defined design problem. It encourages exploration of different approaches before choosing the best direction for development.

Explore a wide range of creative ideas and develop early representations.

Pleasure from personal values, beliefs, or aesthetics. This occurs when a product reflects what the user cares about, such as sustainability, ethical choices, minimalism, or cultural identity.

Spreads force over a longer distance, making it easier to lift or move objects.

Inclusive design is the practice of designing products, services, environments, and experiences that are accessible and usable by as many people as possible, regardless of age, ability, gender, culture, or other characteristics. It aims to meet diverse needs without requiring adaptation or specialised solutions.

Injection moulding is a manufacturing process that injects molten material into a mould cavity to form parts or products. Common materials include thermoplastics (e.g. ABS, polyethylene, polypropylene), thermosetting plastics (e.g. epoxy, phenolic), and elastomers (e.g. rubber).

What is put into a system

A functional prototype fitted with sensors or measurement tools to collect data.

Everyday objects and devices embedded with computing technology that are interconnected through the internet, allowing them to send, receive, and respond to data.

An ongoing process of repetition where each iteration builds on the results of the previous one, aiming to gradually improve and reach a desired goal or solution.

Joining techniques are methods used to connect two similar or dissimilar materials together.

Journey mapping is a visual representation of the steps a user takes to complete a task or interact with a product, showing their actions, emotions, and pain points along the way.

LOM is a system that slices a 3D CAD model into thin layers, then cuts each layer from material using a laser or plotter cutter. The layers are glued together in order to form a 3D model.

Covering a material’s surface with a thin sheet using adhesion for protection, durability, stiffness, or aesthetic purposes.

The ease with which a user can reach a defined level of competence with a product or system after a set amount of training or use.

A rigid bar that pivots on a fulcrum to move a load with an applied effort.

The evaluation of a product’s environmental impact across five stages: pre-production, production, distribution, use, and disposal.

An economic model that follows a take—make—dispose approach, leading to
depletion of resources and waste.

Movement in a straight line, in one direction or back and forth.

A mechanical system of connected parts that changes the direction or size of a force.

The process of designing structures to support forces and loads without failing.

A digital device that performs a Boolean function, controlling whether an input signal passes through to the output based on logical rules (e.g., AND, OR, NOT).

Simple, quick, and inexpensive representations of a product. Often made using paper, cardboard, or rough digital sketches.

Machining is the process of manufacturing components by using machines to cut, shape, or finish materials.

Magneto-rheostatic (MR) fluids are special liquids that become thicker or more solid when a magnetic field is applied. When the magnetic field is removed, they return to their normal liquid state. This makes them useful in things like car suspension systems and vibration control.

The ability of a material to be permanently deformed (flattened or shaped) by compressive forces without cracking or breaking.

The production of large quantities of products that are individually customised to meet specific customer needs.

The large-scale production of standardized products using production lines, allowing for high output and efficiency per worker.

The process of forming a material by forcing it through a die, resulting in objects with a fixed cross-section

Material extrusion is a process where material is forced through a die, producing objects with a fixed cross-section, often used in 3D printing and manufacturing.

The ratio of output force to input force in a mechanical system.

Mechanical properties are the characteristics of a material that describe how it reacts to forces such as stretching, compressing, or bending, and how it behaves under stress and strain.

Mechanical properties are characteristics that describe how a material behaves when forces are applied, such as tension, compression, bending, or impact.

A set of physical components that convert input force and motion into a desired output.

A volume production process where machines are operated by humans to produce goods efficiently and consistently.

The temperature at which a material changes from a solid to a liquid.

A usability objective that measures how well a user can recall how to use a product after a period of not using it.

A compact integrated circuit used to control specific operations in an embedded system. It contains a processor, memory, and input/output interfaces all in one chip.

Milling is a machining process that uses rotary cutters to remove material, allowing for the creation of complex shapes and surfaces.

A rough or basic model, often made from inexpensive materials, used to explore form or function quickly.

A technique that records human movement using sensors or cameras to apply realistic motion to digital models.

Moulding is a group of manufacturing techniques that use a mould to shape material into a desired form.

A pulley that is attached to the load, allowing it to reduce the effort needed by increasing mechanical advantage.

A multidisciplinary team is made up of members from different fields, each contributing their expert knowledge to improve the design process.

An instrument used to measure electrical properties such as current, voltage, and resistance.

Multisensory design involves engaging two or more senses such as sight, sound, and touch to create a richer, more immersive user experience.

A digital logic gate that acts as a logical inverter, giving an output that is the opposite of the input: if the input is true (1), the output is false (0), and vice versa.

Obsolescence is when a product becomes outdated, unwanted, or no longer functional before the end of its useful life — often by design.

The creation of a single, unique product, often craft-produced or made as a prototype for larger-scale production.

An open-loop system operates without feedback, meaning it does not adjust based on the output.

An electronic device that amplifies weak signals.

A digital logic gate that gives a high output (1) if at least one input is high (1). It only outputs low (0) when all inputs are low (0).

Movement back and forth along a curved path.

An instrument that displays and analyzes electrical waveforms, showing how signals change over time.

An instrument that displays and analyses electrical waveforms, showing how signals change over time.

What comes out of a system

A circuit where the electrical path splits into branches, so current divides and only part flows through each branch.

A linkage system where a central point is constrained to move in a nearly straight line.

A mechanism where a central point is constrained to move in a nearly straight line by the arrangement of linked bars.

Components that do not control or amplify electrical signals, but instead store, resist, or transfer energy, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

A percentile is a value that shows how a data point compares to the rest of the data, dividing the set into 100 equal parts.

A percentile range represents the proportion of a population whose body dimensions fall at or below a certain value.

A persona is a fictional but realistic profile of the target user, based on real data and insights gathered from user research. It represents their goals, needs, behaviours, and limitations to help guide design decisions.

Photochromic materials change color in response to light and revert when the light is removed.

Physical properties are characteristics that can be observed or measured without altering the material's chemical composition.

Physical properties are characteristics that can be observed or measured without altering the material's chemical composition.

A tangible, real-world model of a product, built using physical materials.

Physiology is the study of the human body’s systems and biomechanics, focusing on its responses, capabilities, and physical limitations in relation to product use.

Physiology is the study of the human body’s systems and biomechanics, focusing on its responses, capabilities, and physical limitations in relation to product use.

Human factor data related to physical characteristics used to optimise the
user’s safety, health, comfort and performance.

A property of certain smart materials that allows them to generate a small electrical charge when mechanically deformed, and to change shape (expand or contract) when an electric current is applied.

Planned obsolescence is when a product is intentionally designed to become outdated or less useful after a certain period. This is done to encourage repeat purchases, or to allow for new technologies or safety improvements in future versions.

The ability of a material to be permanently deformed without breaking when a force is applied.

A finishing technique that makes a surface smooth and shiny by rubbing it, often with an abrasive material.

Polymers are synthetic materials made from chemical compounds that are commonly known as plastics.

A general assumption about how most users in a given culture or population behave or expect a product to function.

It is an additive manufacturing technique that uses directed thermal energy to fuse layers of powdered material, forming a 3D object.

A finishing process where dry powder is applied to a surface, then cured with heat to form a durable and smooth finish.

Effectively communicate the final design and its development process.

Press forming is a manufacturing process where material is shaped by pressing it into a mould to create a specific object or component.

Research carried out directly by the user through testing, observation, or data collection to gather original insights.

A problem statement is a short and clear description of a specific issue that needs to be solved. It explains what the problem is and what needs to be addressed

Components that are responsible for interpreting, manipulating and storing data in an electronic system

A systematic evaluation of a product to assess its features, identify its strengths and weaknesses, and uncover opportunities for enhancement or innovation.

The constraints on product design caused by manufacturing processes, materials, and technologies.

Prototyping is the process of creating a model or early version of a product to explore ideas, test concepts, and gather feedback before final production.

Pleasure from mental satisfaction, ease of use, or a sense of control. This happens when a product is intuitive, efficient, or gives clear feedback. It can also come from solving problems or completing tasks.

Human factor data related to psychological interpretations caused by light,
smell, sound, taste, temperature and texture.

Psychology in design is the study of how users think, feel, and respond to sensory information, helping designers create products that are more intuitive, engaging, and effective.

Psychology is the study of the human mind and behaviour, focusing on how we perceive, interpret, and interact with the world.

A grooved wheel that uses a rope, cord, chain, or cable to transmit energy and motion.

A linkage system that allows force to be transferred in both directions — when pushed or pulled.

A mechanical system where a toothed bar (rack) engages with a circular gear (pinion) to convert rotary motion into linear motion.

A range of sizes refers to a selection of product sizes designed to accommodate the majority of users within a target market, often based on anthropometric data.

Rapid prototyping is the use of 3D printing and other additive techniques to quickly create physical models from CAD designs, allowing fast testing and feedback.

A group of manufacturing techniques used to manufacture a physical object quickly for testing aspects of a product. Typically, 3D computer-aided design (CAD) models are used.

A mechanical device that allows motion in one direction only. The pawl fits into the teeth of the ratchet wheel, preventing backward rotation while allowing forward movement.

The range that a person can stretch to touch or grasp an object from a specified
position.

A chemical property that describes how likely a material is to react with food, air, or cleaning chemicals in a way that could make it unsafe for food contact.

Repetitive back-and-forth movement in a straight line.

Restoring a product to like-new condition by cleaning, repairing, and upgrading its components for continued use.

Processing used materials to recover resources and create new products, reducing the need for raw materials.

An electronic switch that is activated by a current or signal to open or close another circuit, allowing a low-power signal to control a high-power circuit.

Energy from natural sources that are replenished over time or never run out, such as solar, wind, and hydropower.

Restoring a product’s functionality by fixing faults or damage, allowing it to be used again instead of replaced.

A type of question that focuses research to find the required answers.

The opposition to the flow of electrons in an electrical circuit. It can be calculated using Ohm’s Law, which relates resistance (R), voltage (V), and current (I): R=V/I. Measured in ohms (Ω)

An electronic component that limits or controls the flow of electric current in a circuit.

Extending a product’s life by using it again, either for the same purpose or a different function, instead of discarding it.

A method of analysing an existing product by disassembling it to understand its design, components, and manufacturing processes.

A linkage that reverses the direction of a force or motion.

Movement around a circular path or axis.

Rotational moulding is a manufacturing process where powdered material is placed in a mould, which is then heated and rotated to coat the inside evenly, forming a hollow object as it cools and solidifies.

The product is non-toxic throughout its life cycle—safe to use, dispose of, and manufacture, without harming people or ecosystems.

The ratio of the maximum load a structure can bear to its expected load.

Sanding is a process that smooths surfaces using abrasive paper or belts to remove small amounts of material.

A usability objective that reflects how pleasant a product is to use, based on how well it meets the user’s needs, expectations, and preferences.

A proportionally scaled-down (or up) version of the product, often non-functional.

A scenario is a short, realistic story that describes how a user (often represented by a persona) interacts with a product in a specific context to achieve a goal.

An inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder, used to convert rotational force into linear motion or hold objects together.

Research undertaken by someone other than the user.

SLS is an additive manufacturing technique that uses a laser to fuse small particles of material into a solid 3D shape for rapid prototyping.

An electronic input device that detects or measures physical changes in the environment, such as light, temperature, or motion, and converts them into electrical signals.

A circuit where components are connected one after another in a single loop, so current flows through each component in turn.

A smart material that can be deformed and then return to its original, pre-set shape when exposed to a change in temperature or stress.

Two equal and opposite forces acting on an object that are not aligned, creating a cutting effect.

A 3D hollow structure with thin walls relative to its overall size.

The processing of an analogue signal to prepare it for the next stage, such as filtering, amplifying, or converting it for use in a digital system.

The process of transforming a signal from one form to another (e.g., analogue to digital), allowing different components to communicate or process data correctly.

A beam that is supported at either end.

Materials that respond to external stimuli (such as heat, light, pressure, or electricity) by changing one or more of their properties in a controlled, reversible, and repeatable way.

The product is made under fair, ethical, and just conditions, supporting the well-being of workers and local communities involved in sourcing and production.

Social obsolescence happens when a product loses value or usefulness due to external social, economic, or cultural changes—not because the product itself is faulty. This can include shifts in trends, technology, or user expectations.

Pleasure from social connection or identity. Coming from how a product helps users interact, belong, or express status.

The product is designed to be powered by renewable energy, such as solar, wind, or hydro, during both manufacture and use, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.

Digital 3D models that provide a complete representation of an object, including its external form, internal structure, and material properties.

A structure with few or no internal spaces that resists shape change when under load.

A toothed gear with teeth that project parallel to the gear’s axis, used to transmit motion between parallel shafts.

The ability of a structure to maintain its shape and position under load.

An individual or group with an interest or concern in a product, system, or project, who can be affected by or influence its development and outcome.

Static anthropometric data are body measurements taken when a person is still and in a standard position, such as arm length or overhead reach.

A stationary force acting on a structure, including its own weight and the load it carries.

SLA is an additive manufacturing technique that builds 3D models layer by layer by hardening a photosensitive liquid polymer using a laser beam.

The ability of a material to resist bending or deflection when a force is applied, helping it maintain its shape.

The action of using thread or cord to loop and join two or more materials together, often with a needle.

A visual tool used to communicate how a product is used, through images, drawings, or photographs, to represent the user experience. It helps identify opportunities for improvement by highlighting key interactions and challenges.

The change in length of a material divided by its original length, caused by stress.

A force applied to a material divided by its cross-sectional area. Measured in Pascals (Pa).

A visual representation of how a material responds to a load.

Structural failure occurs when a product or structure can no longer carry the load it was designed for, often leading to deformation or breakage.

The parts of a product that resist loads, such as the shell, framework, or solid structure, helping it maintain strength and stability.

A beam in a framework designed to resist compression and support other beams.

Style obsolescence occurs when a product becomes undesirable due to changing fashions or trends. However, because fashion is cyclical, older styles can regain popularity—as seen with retro or vintage trends.

Subtractive manufacturing uses techniques that shape components by removing material from a solid block.

Digital 3D models that represent only the external surfaces of an object, without defining its internal structure or volume.

In design, sustainability means creating products and systems that minimise negative impacts on the environment, human health, and well-being, while promoting long-term resource efficiency and responsible use.

An electrical component that is used to connect or disconnect the flow of electricity in a circuit, allowing control over whether the circuit is on or off.

A strategic tool used to identify a product’s Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats to support informed design decisions.

Laws that require manufacturers to collect and responsibly dispose of or recycle their products at the end of their life cycle. This is also known as Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

Task analysis is the process of observing and studying a user as they perform a task, to understand how they interact with a product or system. The goal is to identify steps, challenges, and opportunities for improvement in the user experience.

Technological obsolescence happens when newer technology replaces older technology, making the old version less useful or outdated. As a result, consumers switch to the more advanced, efficient option, and the older technology is no longer used in new products.

Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand pulling forces without breaking or deforming.

A pulling or stretching force that acts to extend a material.

The process of evaluating a product’s performance, safety, and usability to ensure it meets design specifications and user needs.

A cloth or woven fabric material.

A measure of how quickly heat passes through a material when there is a temperature difference across it. It is measured in watts per metre per degree Celsius (W/m·°C).

A measure of the degree of increase in dimensions (length, area or volume)

Thermoelectric materials generate electricity when heat flows through two different conductors joined together. The temperature difference causes an electric current to form.

Timber is wood that has been harvested from trees and processed for use in manufacturing, construction, and carpentry. It is typically classified into softwoods (from coniferous trees) and hardwoods (from deciduous trees), based on the type of tree it comes from.

A twisting force.

The ability of a material to absorb energy and resist the spread of cracks, especially when subjected to a sudden impact or shock load.

How the product performs its function and delivers value.

A semiconductor device with three connections that can regulate current or voltage and is commonly used for switching or amplifying signals in electronic circuits.

An expanded framework for measuring organisational success that includes three key areas: economic (profit), environmental (planet), and social (people). It encourages businesses to balance financial performance with environmental responsibility and social equity.

Charts that show all possible input combinations for a logic circuit and their corresponding output values, helping to analyse and predict circuit behavior.

Turning is a machining process where a workpiece is rotated while a stationary cutting tool removes material to shape it. It is commonly used in woodworking and metalworking to produce cylindrical forms.

The maximum stress a material can withstand before breaking.

The degree to which a product enables specified users to achieve defined goals effectively, efficiently, and with consistency and predictability.

Usability objectives include learnability, efficiency, memorability, errors and
satisfaction. These objectives provide a framework for evaluating and improving products.

The experience and emotional response a person has during the use or anticipated use of a product, system, or service. It is often communicated through a storyboard to show empathy and highlight key interactions and touchpoints.

A research activity where the user is observed interacting with a product or
completing a task to find pain points in the process or interaction.

User-Centred Design (UCD) is an approach that focuses on understanding the needs, wants, and limitations of the end-user at every stage of the design process, ensuring the final product is functional, accessible, and meaningful.

Vacuum forming is a manufacturing process where a heated plastic sheet is stretched over a mould and sucked down by vacuum pressure to form a specific shape.

A measure of how fast one part of a mechanical system moves compared to another, helping designers control speed, torque, and efficiency.

Digital representations of a product that go beyond physical form to include simulations, animations, and interactive elements for testing and visualisation.

Virtual prototypes are digital models created using software tools like CAD (Computer-Aided Design) and simulation programs.

A fully immersive digital environment where users can interact with a 3D model or simulation using a headset or interface.

The electromotive force from a power source that pushes electrons through a circuit, often described as electric pressure. Measured in volts (V)

The process of interlacing threads by passing some in one direction and others at a right angle, to form a sheet-like material.

A triangular tool that converts force from its blunt end into forces at right angles to its sloped surfaces.

A manufacturing process that joins parts by heating them to their melting point, then allowing them to cool and solidify together.

A wireless communication technology that uses radio waves to provide high-speed internet and network connectivity without physical cables.

A fixed 3D space where a user can comfortably and efficiently perform tasks, considering clearance and reach.

A fixed 3D space where a user can comfortably and efficiently perform tasks, considering clearance and reach.

The maximum stress a material can handle before plastic deformation begins.

A measure of a material’s stiffness, defined as stress divided by strain.